Ch 1-3 Flashcards
The sum of all intelligent mental activities is _
cognition
Cognition includes the acquisition and processing of _ _ about the world in order to make behavioural decisions
sensory information
What is the most sophisticated computing device in the (known) universe?
a) the human brain
b) the Google car
c) the calculator
d) Deep Blue (chess-playing computer)
a) the human brain
because of the lack of understanding of its processes and their intricacies
T or F: the study of cognition is made up of multiple fields and subfields of scientific research
true, because intelligent behaviour is multifaceted
To read a book, I have to:
1. recognize the device to display its content
2. engage my memory of how to operate the device to pull up the correct site, etc.
3. _
4. avoiding processing competing stimuli
5. using knowledge of language and of ideas and concepts related to the text
- focus on the book’s text, recognizing the letters and words as I move my eyes across the page in the right order
Reading a book requires:
perception
attention
short-term memory
long-term memory
language
-
decision making
problem-solving
The field of cognition is primarily concerned with understanding the processes that allow things to go _
right, or correctly
The 1990s was dubbed the Decade of the _
Brain
Do theorists have a strong theory of how the brain works?
no, but some ideas
The _ _ in the field of cognition is gradual, painstaking progress marked by debate and uncertainty
scientific process
Is there a great unified theory of the brain and how it brings about the stuff of thought?
Nope
The study of the mind/cognition is relevant to groups including:
scientists
scholars
_
industry groups
engineers - computer? electrical?
The study of cognition encompasses two major scientific disciplines:
experimental psychology
_
neuroscience
The goal of basic research into cognition is to understand who we humans are and…
what makes us tick/why do we do the things we do and how do we do them
Applied research of cognition is concerned with…
the end goal of developing an application or solution to a problem
e.g., understanding pathology of autism, enhancing education, etc.
Research in perception can facilitate the design of systems with which people interact, such as machine or computer consoles, a field known as human _
factors
Artificial intelligence/AI is the study of how humans perform cognition to try to…
build machines that can do the same thing
How can one gauge how we understand what the brain does?
assess how well we are able to build artificial devices to produce its behaviour
In 1996, Deep Blue did what to Gary Kasparov?
Deep Blue, a computer, beat Kasparov, world’s best chess champion, in a game of chess
What did Deep Blue’s chess win indicate?
that machines could one day be able to outthink people
Deep Blue’s chess knowledge is based on _ programming
IFFT programming
What does IFFT programming stand for?
if-this-then-that programming is a computer program that a programmer specifies what do to under each condition. If it is a sophisticated program, it can perform great feats
e.g., AI as chatbots, able to carry out conversations to mimic real human interaction
Where do machine applications historically fail?
dealing with novel, constantly changing conditions that it has not dealt with before
Dealing with novel, constantly changing conditions that one has not encountered for requires _ intelligence
flexible
Is flexible intelligence currently only specific to humans? Y or N
Yes
Automated visual object recognition, termed _ vision, is concerned with developing computer programs that can interpret objects, symbols, scans and even faces
computer or machine vision
More than 10 years ago was machine vision a thing?
No, that tech only began in the last 10 years
Saying “OK Google” is an example of - _
human-machine interaction
When computers change their behaviour in order to get better at some task, they are showing they are programmed to _
learn
When computers change their behaviour in order to get better at some task, they are showing they are exhibiting _ _
machine learning
Machine learning that uses techniques that are modelled in the brain have what are called _ _ networks
artificial neural networks
A brain-inspired _ _ can be used to learn about visual information for computer vision that may be applied to voice recognition, weather prediction, or even action planning
computer algorithm
What is the primary driver of recent dramatic progress in artificial intelligence?
a) much larger computer memory stores
b) computer programs that can learn rather than being programmed
c) better computer programmers
d) much faster computers
b) computer programs that can learn rather than being programmed
The self-driving car is an excellent example of _ _
machine learning
A recent computer model, _, produces human-like paragraphs based on a writing prompt
GPT-3
When do researchers assume true human-like artificial general intelligence will arrive?
the next few decades
The study of the physical brain and related systems is _
neuroscience
Modern tools allow researchers to measure the activity of the intact brain while the animal is awake and _
behaving
Modern tools for brain research have brought us further than the old days of post-_ _ of brains
post-mortem dissection of brains
Non-invasive brain techniques measure brain activity of _ of increasingly smaller portions
brain regions are studied
More invasive brain techniques allow for the specific measurement of _ _, whether the being is awake and behaving
individual neurons
Some brain techniques allow researches to _ or _ portions of the brain and observe effects on cognitive processes
active or deactivate
Cognitive psychology is studying intelligent behaviour itself using _ _
behavioural experiments
Non-experimental methods include _ _, in which researchers watch the behaviour of people or other organisms in their typical habitat
naturalistic observation
Cognitive psychology depends on measuring _ , in order to develop theories of the underlying neurophysiological processes
behaviours
The two typical measurements that are studied in cognitive psychology are
reaction time
_
accuracy
Computation modeling for the study of cognition is the use of computer-based models to …
simulate brain processes or functions
Why was it difficult to study cognition before?
people assumed that it could not be measured in an observable way
The question or debate of how mental events such as thoughts, beliefs and sensations are related to, or caused by, physical mechanisms taking place in the body is the - _
mind-body problem
What was a response to the mind-body problem, historically?
dualism
Dualism views the mind and body as consisting of fundamentally…
different kinds of substances or properties
the mind is completely separate from the body, one not being physical, the other physical
The view that there is only one kind of basic substance in the world is _
monism
vs. dualism
A type of monism is /, the position that the only kind of reality is physical reality
physicalism/materialism
According to physicalism/materialism, cognition is a _ phenomenon, and mental states can ultimately be explained as being based in the processed of the _ brain
[repeated words]
physical phenomenon; physical brain
According to physicalism/materialism, the idea of a non-physical mind is…
an illusion (as opposed to dualism’s idea of mind vs body)
The view that the only kind of reality is mental is called _
idealism
Idealism is a type of _-ism, as is physicalism/materialism
monism
The brain (and all physical reality) is really a _ _, according to idealism
mental construct
cue The Matrix
_ monism holds there is only one kind of substance, of which the mind and body are composed. It is, however, not physical or mental
neutral monism
Frank Jackson (1986)’s famous thought experiment looked at the physiological processes in _ _ to determine the relevance of the various monistic and dualistic theories of the mind and body
seeing colour
According to Frank Jackson (1986), a colour blind scientist would understand what yellow or pink is if they are a _-ist
materialist/physicalist
There is nothing to explain once all the physics, chemistry and physiology has been accounted for
According to Frank Jackson (1986), a colour blind scientist would NOT understand what yellow or pink is if they are a _-ist
dualist
The scientist may know all of the physical facts of the colour and its physiological processes, but not understand the mental component, which requires experiencing yellow or pink colour
The idea of a soul or spirit is a commonly held view for a _-ist
dualist
Dualism probably arose from the Greek philosopher _ around 350 BCE
Plato
Plato argued that the mind was based on an _ _, which is more real than the physical world
immortal soul
Rene Descarte (17th C) proposed that the mind and body form two different types of substance but that…
these could interact with one another
Descartes believed that, much like the ancient Greeks, that the _ _, a structure in the centre of the brain, is the site of the mind-body interaction
pineal gland
_-ism suggests that the processes of the physical body, including the brain, affect the workings of the mind and that, conversely, the mind’s thoughts and decisions lead to action in the body
Dualism
According to dualism, the mind and body are _ and the nature of their interaction is not well explained
separate entities
T or F: most scientists who study the brain and behaviour subscribe to the idea that the products of the mind - intelligent behaviour - may ultimately be understood in terms of the workings of the physical brain, without any immateriality
true, most don’t believe there is immateriality at play
_ materialism suggests that science operates based on physical methods, measurements and explanatory mechanisms that cannot test non-physical theories
Pragmatic materialism - all physicality, no immateriality
Does pragmatic materialism claim that the mind and body are identical?
no, but they do suggest that physicality is at play for both
Pragmatic materialism suggests that _ _ can be explained based on physical processes
observable behaviour
Do pragmatic materialists believe that our inner consciousness (“the feeling of red”) is explained by physical processes?
no, not necessarily
Pragmatic materialism suggests that we don’t have a full understanding of how the brain works and how its function relates to behaviour, but that an understanding is possible with the advancement of science
true
Why do pragmatic materialists believe that we will one day have a full undersstanding of the physical brain and how its function relates to behaviour?
based on the success of the physical sciences in explaining natural phenomena, based on physical mechanisms
There are approximately _ billion neurons in the brain
86 billion!, or over 600 trillion neural connections
What is crucial to understanding the intelligent behaviour the brain produces WITHIN?
the brain behaves within multiple contexts - within itself, the body, society, and the world
Which of these is NOT an offered reason as to why studying the physical brain alone might be insufficient to understand cognition?
a) The brain is enormously complex
b) Cognition depends on non-physical mechanisms
c) The brain is embedded in the larger context of the body and the world
d) The brain must be considered within the contexts in which it operates
b) Cognition depends on non-physical mechanisms
Which of these viewpoints is LEAST compatible with the scientific study of cognition?
a) The mind and brain are both the same physical entity, which causes intelligent behaviour
b) The mind and brain are separate entities but the physical brain causes intelligent behaviour
c) The mind and brain are both the same physical entity, but this entity does not cause intelligent behaviour
d) The mind and brain are separate entities and the non-physical mind causes intelligent behaviour
d) The mind and brain are separate entities and the non-physical mind causes intelligent behaviour
Observing the mind directly is one of the tenets of _
structuralism
_ _ (1832 - 1920) introducted structuralism, and Edward Titchener championed it in America
Wilhelm Wundt
_ _ (was a student of Wilhelm Wundt, and championed structuralism when he came to American
Edward Titchener
The structuralists attempted to to the same to the mind as those in scientific fields such as physics and chemistry approached their work by…
breaking down complex processes into simpler elements
Structuralists used a technique called _ _, in which practitioners were trained to carefully consider and describe their own internal conscious experiences in terms of fundamental “elements” of consciousness
analytic introspection
With analytic introspection, the structuralists hoped they would discover the basis principles of how their own _ _ _ combined to form the contents of the working mind
internal conscious experiences
_ was, despite calling himself otherwise, the first psychologist
Wilhelm Wundt
_ was, despite calling himself otherwise, the first psychologist by using a methodological approach to studying consciousness, comparing results with others and trying to replicate
Wilhelm Wundt
Wundt studied
experimentation
attention
memory
_
language
Wundt studied language by creating the first _ _
syntax trees
Wundt was the first to describe the approximate number of items one could remember before it was championed by another researcher
the +/- 7 objects rule
Since _ claimed that results of a study needed to match his own to be considered correct, he was criticized for being a poor scientist
Titchener
Analytic introspection was not successful because:
data could only be seen by one individual and cannot be …, i.e., lend itself well to replication
objectively verified by others
_, an important mechanism of self-correction in science in which different researchers performing the same experiments using the same methods should get the same, verifiable results, assuming the original findings are valid
replication
Introspection was not successful because its approach was not:
replicable
addressing _ _
addressing unconscious awareness
e.g., fluent in a language without explicit knowledge of grammatical rules, i.e., grammar is implicit and not available to consciousness
_ _ , a condition where individuals have damage to the part of the brain that processes visual information before sending it to higher-level processing, can still elicit behavioural responses to visual stimuli, despite participants believe they are completely blind
cortical blindness
Blindsight is a phenomenon in which someone who reports blindness due to cortical damage…
still shows behaviour consisting with SOME perception
According to working scientists, predicted the consensus that valid science of the mind ultimately must depend on…
phenomena that can be externally measured
The - protocol is a research method that involves having participants verbally describe their thought process as they are performing a specific task
think-aloud protocol
Analytic introspection is still used as a secondary measure in order to generate _ that are then tested using other methods
theories
(1842-1910), father of psychology, studied consciousness but did not agree with Wundt’s interest in what conscious is but rather what it’s used for
James
James (1842-1910) was considered the first psychologist, but he actually was a _
philosopher
Empiricism requires the use of _ in studies
observation
If everything has a cause, then the scientific method used is likely _-ism
determinism
If a theory can be falsified, then an experiment is said to have _-ability
testability
Choosing the simplest reason of a variety of options until proven otherwise is referred to as _
parsimony
The four requirements for scientific method are:
empiricism
determinism
testability
_
parsimony
The observation should do something useful, according to _-ists
behaviourists
_ (1849-1936) studied publicly observable functions of the mind, and championed classical conditioning
Pavlov
Classical conditioning is marked by creating a _ _
conditioned response
Pavlov had shown that behaviour can be _, based on conditioning
changed
_ followed structuralism (its opposite), founded by John Watson (1878 - 1958)
behaviourism
According to _ (1878 - 1958), in order to become a true science, psychology needed to abandon discussion of internal mental states in favour of objectively observable data
John Watson (1878 - 1958)
Watson replaced structuralist discussion about mental images, ideas, and memory with stimulus and _
response
A _ is something that compels the senses of the experimental subject
stimulus
Can a stimulus and response be objectively observed and measured, according to behaviourists?
yes
Do behaviourists care about how the brain is stimulated and why it responds?
no, rather it is interested in if it is stimulated and if there is a response, not the mechanisms that cause it (i.e., brain physiology, etc.)
Classical conditioning induces _ _ by a stimulus that wouldn’t normally cause such a reaction, based on the fact that the stimulus was previously paired with a different stimulus that naturally does cause that reaction
involuntary response/behaviour
Between nature-versus-nurture, behaviourists such as Watson would strongly focus on _, arguing that he could take any children and train them to be anything he wanted
nurture
B. F. Skinner (1904-90) was interested in a kind of learning system called _ _
operant conditioning
Operant conditioning was argue by Skinner, based on the _ _ study
Skinner box
A Skinner box is a chamber used to contain and automatically provide _ _ to an animal during operant conditioning experiments
behavioural feedback
Skinner ultimately argued that behaviour learned from conditioning isn’t always _; it can be a conscious thing
passive
Reinforcement learning is the basis of much of _’s work
Skinner’s
Removing an unpleasant stimulus is considered:
a) positive punishment
b) negative reinforcement
c) negative punishment
d) positive reward
a) positive punishment
Generating an unpleasant stimulus is considered:
a) positive punishment
b) negative reinforcement
c) negative punishment
d) positive reward
b) negative reinforcement
Removing a pleasant stimulus is considered:
a) positive punishment
b) negative reinforcement
c) negative punishment
d) positive reward
c) negative punishment
Generating a pleasant stimulus is considered:
a) positive punishment
b) negative reinforcement
c) negative punishment
d) positive reward
d) positive reward
Noam Chomsky (1928 - ) argued that behaviourism could never achieve its goals of explaining behaviour through conditioning because of the ‘_ _ _’ argument
poverty of stimulus argument
_ _’s (1886 - 1959) studies on rats suggested that behaviour is not a cause and effect; learning can be latent
Edward Tolman
Edward Tolman used a _ _ _, complete with four arms, levers, and different images on each arm, in his studies on rats and latent learning
radial arm maze
The idea of a ‘_ _’ (internal processes and mechanisms) and learning a behaviour without reinforcement were lessons from Edward Tolman’s radial arm maze studies
cognitive maps
_ _ is learning in the absence of any reward or punishment conditioning, as in Tolman’s maze experiments
latent learning
Tolman’s experiments with rats and the radial arm maze demonstrated a fatal flaw in the _ approach: it cannot account for the flexibility of cognition to generate novel, intelligent behaviours that have not already been observed or performed
behaviourist
Flexible cognition requires more complex kinds of processing that can only be captured by positing internal processes and mechanisms, such as “_ _”
cognitive maps
In Tolman’s maze experiment:
1) the rat wanders around, exploring the maze without food present;
2) a food reward is placed in the maze and the rat turns RIGHT to find it
3) the rat is…
placed in the maze at a different starting point
The results of novel behaviour in Tolman’s maze experiment was demonstrated only by rats that were able to…
explore the maze before a food reward was present
Behavioural neuroscience uses behaviourist methodology, using _ _ (I.e., priming) protocols to train rodents and damaging parts of their brain in order to see which parts of the brain are needed in order to learn
reinforcement learning
Behaviourist methodology is also used when treating people with _
phobias
Computers use an input that is manipulated by a _, creating an output
function
_s are methods for producing the correct output from the input using a ‘recipe’ for producing the desired result
algorithms
_ _ (1912 - 1954) creating a machine that carried out human thinking, predating his Enigma machine, i.e., the _ machine (his name)
Alan Turing
The first thinking machine (not war-related) was created by Newell and _, their Logic Theorist (1956)
Simon
The _ _ was the first thinking machine that showed math proofs, outperforming humans and solving problems that weren’t previously solved by humans
Logic Theorist (Newell and Simon, 1956)
Newell and Simon’s 1956 Logical Theorist machine only missed the introduction of _ _ at a conference in 1954, to the research community
artificial intelligence
A _ is a mapping between a set of inputs and a set of outputs
function
The advent of electrical _ by Bell Labs replaced vacuum tubes to encode information for super computers
electrical transistors
_ that can fire or remain silent were viewed as encoding the ones and zeros of computers’ binary system, much like the transistors in electrical computers
neurons
The rejection of behaviourism and the rise of computers helped lead the perspective known as _ _
cognitive revolution
The cognitivist perspective / cognitive revolution suggests that cognition may be viewed as a type of _, with sensory information serving as the input and a decision or behaviour serving as the output
computation
According to cognitivists, what happens between the input and output in the brain is referred to as _ _
information processing
The goal of cognitivist researchers is to determine what underlying _ the brain uses to compute its input/output functions
algorithm or program
Neisser’s 19__ book, Cognitive Psychology, championed the cognitivist perspective
1967
The themes covered in Neisser’s “Cognitive Psychology” book were:
1. representationalism
2. computations
3. biological
4. _
embodiment
The cognitivist theme of representationalism uses the idea of ‘_’, what something stands for in the world, i.e., a mental representation
aboutness
The cognitivist theme of computations uses the idea of understanding what _ allows the progression from input to output in information processing
input - store - manipulate - output
function
The cognitivist theme of computations uses the following logic:
input - _ - manipulate - output
input - STORE - manipulate - output
The cognitivist theme of biology uses information based on medicine and physiology to conjure _ _, structures of the brain that are mimicked by artificial intelligence
neural networks
The cognitivist theme of biology is interested in the use of symbols, rather than connections. T or F?
false - they are interested in connections, rather than symbols used. they want to know how it works, not what it stands for
The cognitivist theme of embodiment uses the idea of the ‘grounding problem’, which highlights that _ are cyclical and do not offer further information
symbols
The cognitivist theme of embodiment uses the idea of …that is given by perceptual, motor and emotional activity by the body in the real world, potentially eliminating the need of representation/symbols
information through experience, not representation
The four research methods of interest in cognitive psychology are:
case studies
_
experiments
computer simulations
correlational studies
Experiments require controlling the _ variable to manipulate the _ variable
controlling the independent variable to manipulate the dependent variable
- are a research method that cannot randomly have participants selected since they test with independent variables that cannot be randomly assigned (e.g., good memory, poor sleeping habits, etc.)
quasi-experiments
_ are often used in illustrating reverse engineering, thinking about the brain as carrying out sequences of computational steps
flowcharts
Flowchart boxes illustrate different computation steps or stages not different brain areas in reverse engineering diagrams. T or F?
true
Reverse engineering for cognition is about the _ structure of the mind, rather than the _ structure of the brain
computational structure of the mind, not the physiological structure of the brain
The puzzle of how the physical body is related to mental activity is called ______.
a. the dualism divide
b. the mind-body problem
c. the mystery of mind
d. the great debate
b. the mind-body problem
Descartes articulated the perspective of ______.
a. monism
b. physicalism
c. dualism
d. behaviourism
c. dualism
The use of introspection was a hallmark method of which school of psychology?
a. behaviourism
b. cognitivism
c. structuralism
d. all of the above
c. structuralism
Consider the following scenario. An intergalactic team of psychologists discovers a planet with robot-like androids and is trying to understand them. Which school of psychology does a researcher probably belong to if they use the following research method?
Method 1: Determining the action responses of the robots in response to specific kinds of stimulation
a. cognitive
b. behaviourist
c. dualist
d. structuralist
b. behaviourist
Consider the following scenario. An intergalactic team of psychologists discovers a planet with robot-like androids and is trying to understand them. Which school of psychology does a researcher probably belong to if they use the following research method?
Method 2: Asking the robots to verbally report on their internal processes
a. cognitive
b. behaviourist
c. dualist
d. structuralist
d. structuralist
Consider the following scenario. An intergalactic team of psychologists discovers a planet with robot-like androids and is trying to understand them. Which school of psychology does a researcher probably belong to if they use the following research method?
Method 3: Using the response of the robot to specific kinds of stimulation in order to infer its internal mental processes
a. cognitive
b. behaviourist
c. dualist
d. structuralist
a. cognitive
Teaching a dog to “shake hands” on command using a food reward is an example of ______.
a. classical conditioning
b. operant conditioning
c. a combination of classical and operant conditioning
d. none of the above
b. operant conditioning
A finding in Tolman’s maze experiments was that when rats were placed in a different starting point of the maze than the one they had been trained on, they went ______.
a. in the wrong direction to get the food
b. in the correction direction to get the food but only if it involved producing the exact same behaviour as when they had first found the food
c. in the correct direction to get the food but only if they had previously explored the maze
d. in the correct direction to get the food, even when they had not previously explored the maze
c. in the correct direction to get the food but only if they had previously explored the maze
The “cognitive revolution” led to the idea of cognition as a form of ______.
a. mental rotation
b. introspection
c. computation
d. biology
c. computation
In order to ensure the findings of a recent experiment are valid, Dr. Anzures performed the experiment using the same methods as the original experiment. He got the same results as the original experiment and now believes the results are valid. Which of the following terms describes what he did to verify the results?
a. replication
b. think-aloud protocol
c. duplication
d. copying
a. replication
How do psychologists typically deal with the challenge of cognitive differences across individuals?
a. make sure their participants are cognitively “average”
b. ignore the problem and hope for the best
c. use tasks that do not lead to large differences in performance
d. include many participants
d. include many participants
The ______ is the evolutionarily newest part of the brain and is comparatively bigger in humans than in any other species.
a. cerebral cortex
b. hippocampus
c. spinal cord
d. peripheral nervous system
a. cerebral cortex
It is very likely that the brain has gyri and sulci because they ______.
a. have specific functions to perform
b. increase the surface area that can fit in the skull
c. help blood flow
d. help migration of neurons to their proper location during development
b. increase the surface area that can fit in the skull
The idea that specific parts of the cortex do different jobs is known as ______.
a. functional localization
b. specific localization
c. functional processing
d. distributed processing
a. functional localization
People with damage to their left hemisphere are likely to have trouble with ______.
a. memory
b. spatial processing
c. control of their left hand
d. language
d. language
Wernicke’s aphasia is to ______ as Broca’s aphasia is to ______.
a. talking; hearing
b. hearing; talking
c. comprehension; production
d. production; comprehension
c. comprehension; production
Broca’s aphasia ______.
a. affects production
b. has behavioural consequences such as slow and deliberate speech
c. affects comprehension
d. both A and B
d. both A and B
To say two functions are doubly dissociated indicates that those two functions ______.
a. involve the same mechanisms
b. involve different mechanisms
c. interact with each other
d. cannot function alone
b. involve different mechanisms
Executive control and planning is associated with the _ lobe
frontal
Attention and somatosensory processing is associated with the _ lobe
parietal
Meaning of sensory info and language is associated with the _ lobe
temporal
Vision is associated with the _ lobe
occipital
If a split-brain patient is presented with a triangle in their left visual field and a circle in their right visual field, which object will they verbally name?
a. neither the circle nor the triangle
b. both the circle and the triangle
c. the triangle
d. the circle
d. the circle
items that are seen go to the closest eye and are relayed to the opposite side of the brain; for the left-side, it would see the triangle which would be relayed to the right side of the brain which does not have a speech production area, whereas seeing the circle on the right-side, it would be relayed to the left side of the brain which does have a speech production area, which would then be repeated.
An EEG measures _.
a. the flow of blood in the brain
b. the electrical activity of an active brain
c. the electrical activity of a single (or very few) neuron(s)
d. the BOLD response
b. the electrical activity of an active brain
When the neurotransmitters released by the sending neuron cause the receiving neuron to fire more frequently we call this an ______ effect.
a. inhibitory
b. excitatory
c. action potential
d. threshold
b. excitatory
This type of neuron receives information from neurons and sends information to other neurons.
a. motor
b. sensory
c. association
d. neural
c. association
a.k.a. interneuron
Some of the same neurons will be active for both Alan and Brittany as well as some different neurons, is an example of _ encoding
sparse
The same neurons will be active in response to Alan and Brittany at different rates is an example of _ encoding
distributed
One neuron will be active for Alan and one neuron will be active for Brittany is an example of _ encoding
specificity
This technique simulates the basic architecture of the human brain.
a. artificial neural network
b. machine learning
c. artificial human network
d. algorithm network
a. artificial neural network
To simulate the basic architecture of the brain, ANN programs model layers of interconnected nodes with different activation layers. Sort these items into the typical order we see in programmed ANNs:
hidden layer 1 / output / hidden layer 2 / input
- input
- hidden layer 1
- hidden layer 2
- output
Which of these is not one of the basic goals of the nervous system mentioned above?
a. gather info from sensory systems
b. send info to the brain
c. secrete hormones in the bloodstream
d. direct the movement of muscles
c. secrete hormones in the bloodstream
The nervous system is generally divided up into which two subsystems?
a. PNS and CNS
b. brain and spinal cord
c. PNS and medial nervous systems
d. medial and CNS
a. PNS and CNS
What does the encephalization quotient measure in animals?
a. intelligence and cognitive ability
b. brain size relative to the animal’s body
c. speed of transmitting info between the CNS and PNS
d. extent of evolutionary adaptation over the past 100 years
b. brain size relative to the animal’s body - a correlate, NOT a measure
Tactile information in your right leg is processed on the left side of your brain. This is because most sensory information from one side of the body tends to cross over to which hemisphere?
a. ipsilateral
b. dorsal
c. frontal
d. contralateral
d. contralateral
What aspect of humans’ lives likely drives the fact that their cerebral cortex is much larger relative to the body (i.e., the EQ) than other animals?
a. Humans require more complex voluntary behaviours than other animals
b. Human require more complex involuntary behaviours than other animals
c. Humans require more complex voluntary and involuntary behaviours than other animals
a. Humans require more complex voluntary behaviours than other animals
Which of these is the best description of the different functional specializations of the two hemispheres?
a. left: spatial reasoning - right: language
b. left; language - right: spatial reasoning
c. left: language - right: math reasoning
d. left: emotion - right: spatial reasoning
b. left; language - right: spatial reasoning
The difference between the left and right hemisphere can often be overstated, but there is a strong body of research indicating that, for many, language is processed more dominantly in the left hemisphere, while spatial processing is more dominantly processed in the right hemisphere.
Which of the following did the case of Phineas Gage, the railroad worker who had an accident in which a metal bar penetrated his skull, give researchers evidence to support?
a. people can recover from TBI
b. different parts of the brain serve different functions
c the brain works as one whole unit
d. the frontal lobe is not critical to function normally
b. different parts of the brain serve different functions
A patient presents in a doctor’s office who speaks quickly and with apparent ease but his language is difficult to understand. He is likely suffering from which kind of language deficit?
a. Broca’s aphasia
b. Wernicke’s aphasia
c. word salad
d. both Wernicke’s and Broca’s aphasia
b. Wernicke’s aphasia
Where must you present an object to a split-brain patient if you want them to name that object?
a. left eye
b. right eye
c. left visual field
d. right visual field
d. right visual field
If a patient is staring straight ahead at a fixation point, their visual fields should be evenly divided. Since information is processed contralaterally, this will allow the information presented in their right visual field to be processed by the left side of their brain. This area has easier access to conscious verbalization.
Sam is participating in a sleep study. Researchers place electrodes to Sam’s scalp which are connected to an EEG. What kind of information will be provided by the EEG?
a. changes in blood flow
b. areas of the brain that are necessary to sleep functions
c. electrical activity of the brain during sleep
d. the kind of neurotransmitters released during sleep
c. electrical activity of the brain during sleep
EEG measures the electrical activity due to action potentials that continue to be active during sleep and may be measured by the electrodes.
Which TWO of these statements are true about EEG relative to fMRI? (Note: You must choose two selections!)
a. EEG takes less temporally frequent measurements
b. EEG takes more spatially precise measurements
c. EEG takes more temporally frequent measurements
d. EEG takes less spatially precise measurements
c and d
EEG is measuring the temporal activity of electrical communication. fMRI is measuring the changes in blood flow between active and relatively less active regions of the brain.
Which method can tell researchers whether some portion of the brain is causally involved in performing a specific function?
a. electroencephalography (EEG)
b. functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
c. transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
d. functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS)
c. transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
TMS can causally effect a region so that dependent variables can be more directly observed.
Researchers who study dreams may be interested in figuring out the content of their participant’s dreams (i.e., what kind of event or objects they were dreaming about) even if the participant can’t remember the dream to report it. Which technique would be most useful for making this kind of inference?
a. electroencephalography (EEG)
b. multi-voxel pattern analysis
c. transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
d. analysis of lesions to the brain
b. multi-voxel pattern analysis
This method analyzes typical patterns of brain activity to predictably connect that pattern to a cognition (mental image, feeling, etc).
“I am very important. I provide support and protection as well as maintain the overall physical environment of the brain,” says Roger. “I am also important. I appear to be the basis for cognition!” responds Rebecca. In this case, which type of neuron is Roger and which type is Rebecca?
a. Roger: glial cell - Rebecca: neuron
b. Roger: neuron - Rebecca: glial cell
c. Roger: neuron - Rebecca: network
d. Roger: network - Rebecca: glial cell
a. Roger: glial cell - Rebecca: neuron
Glia are support cells (there are various types) and neurons are the cells of the nervous system (there are also a variety of types!).
What is the part of a neuron that sends information within the neuron?
a. dendrite
b. axon
c. synapse
d. receptor
b. axon
Axons send information away from the cell. They can be either myelinated or unmyelinated.
When a receiving neuron reaches a certain threshold of activation it produces an impulse of electrical activity within the cell body that travels down the axon. When this happens, we say that which of the following is taking place?
a. reuptake
b. action electrical pulse
c. movement potential
d. action potential
d. action potential
he cells have received enough excitatory input which cause the cell to fire and sets a cascade of events into action throughout the length of the cell
Which of the following best explains the process of communication between neurons?
a. excitatory
b. electrical
c. chemical
d. inhibitory
c. chemical
Neurotransmitters are chemicals used to communicate between cells. These are essentially hormones that are active in the nervous system.
They receive signals from the CNS with axons that terminate on muscle fibres [not asking for efferent vs afferent]
motor neurons
Sensory neurons are receptor cells that send information to the brain, motor neurons receive information from the brain and send them “out”, and association neurons connect the two.
They receive info from neurons and send info to other neurons
association neurons
Sensory neurons are receptor cells that send information to the brain, motor neurons receive information from the brain and send them “out”, and association neurons connect the two.
They receive info from neurons and send info to other neurons
association neurons
Sensory neurons are receptor cells that send information to the brain, motor neurons receive information from the brain and send them “out”, and association neurons connect the two.
In the neural circuit discussed above, the fact that several sensory receptors send a signal to a single neuron is an example of what type of neural mechanism?
a. divergence
b. convergence
c. transduction
d. inhibition
b. convergence
Hubel and Weisel found neurons in the cat cortex that responded to a light stimulus with what specific feature?
a. colour
b. orientation
c. brightness
d. texture
b. orientation
Hubel and Weisel found that when a projector slide was moved in different directions, creating shadowed lines, the neuron would respond.
In distributed encoding, which of the following is most likely the brain response you would see when recognizing two people, Nancy and Beth?
a. one neuron will fire for Nancy and a different neuron will fire for Beth
b. completely different neurons will fire for Nancy and Beth
c. Many of the same neurons will fire for Nancy and Beth but at different rates
d. it depends on how familiar Nancy and Beth are to the person
c. Many of the same neurons will fire for Nancy and Beth but at different rates.
Distributed encoding argues that many neurons would be active in response but the specific pattern of response would signal unique images.
If a neuron is tuned to respond to a specific feature in the environment (such as an oriented edge) what effect will that neuron have on other neurons it is connected to when that feature is present?
a. it will have an excitatory effect
b. it will have an inhibitory effect
c. it may have an excitatory or an inhibitory effect
d. it will have neither an excitatory or an inhibitory effect
c. it may have an excitatory or an inhibitory effect
The feature tuning of a neuron determines when that neuron gets excited, but that excitement can be excitatory or inhibitory on the neurons it is connected to.
To simulate the basic architecture of the brain, ANN programs model layers of interconnected “nodes” with different activation levels. What is the typical order we see in programmed ANNs?
a. input, output, layer
b. input, layer, output
c. layer, input, layer, output
d. output, layer, input, output
b. input, layer, output
t is modeled that there is external information taken in, computation, and then an output.
The dorsal refers to the _ of the body
top
The ventral refers to the _ of the body
bottom
The anterior refers to the _ of the body
front
The caudal refers to the _ of the body
back/posterior
The contralateral side of the brain is the _ side
opposite
The gyri are the _ of the cortex, whereas the sulci are the _
hills; valleys
Deep sulci or _ divide lobes
fissures
The primary cluster of fibres connecting the hemispheres by several groups of fibres is the _ _
corpus callosum
_ refers to language deficits due to brain damage
aphasia
_ aphasia (or expressive aphasia_ typically occurs due to damage to the inferior (lower) frontal gyrus
Broca’s aphasia
_ aphasia is marked by very slow and deliberate speech, sometimes consisting of single words uttered one at a time (not a motor problem in controlling the mouth or other organs of speech)
Broca’s
Do Broca’s aphasia patients have problems with writing or typing out language?
yes - it is a problem with identifying and stringing together the right words into fluid speech
_ aphasia (also called receptive aphasia) occurs due to damage to the superior (upper) temporal gyrus
Wernicke’s
_ aphasia is marked by speech that is fluid and largely grammatical but lacks understandable meaning (more comprehension than production)
Wernicke
Language production and language comprehension are double _ - one function can be maintained while the other is impaired
double dissociated
If a split-brain patient is asked to response to a triangle in their left visual field and a circle in their right visual field, then will draw the object in the _ visual field and verbally repeat the object in the _ visual field
left;
right
The parieto-occipital sulcus separates the _ and the _ lobes
occipital and parietal lobes
The central sulcus separates the _ and the _ lobes
frontal and parietal
The lateral fissure separates these lobes: frontal, parietal, and _ lobes
temporal
The _ lobe is associated with:
attention
somatosensory processing
sensory integration
parietal
The _ lobe is associated with
meaning of sensory info
meaning of language
visual memory
temporal
The _ lobe is associated with
executive control
planning
frontal
EEG measures the electrical charges in response to a presented stimulus, which is called an - p_
event-related potential (ERP)
- _’s are measured in uVs
event-related potential (ERP)s
Event-related potentials are graphed according to potential (uV on the y-axis) and …
time measured in ms on the x-axis
You can measure the flow of blood in the brain using _ _ _ _
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
EEGs are considered a/n in/direct measurement of brain activity
direct measurement
fMRI are considered a/n in/direct measurement of brain activity
indirect - it relies on neurons that fire require replenishing their resources and nutrients
Hemodynamic responses occur in which the blood delivers oxygen more quickly to _ neurons than to _ neurons
active than inactive
_ depends on the theory of hemodynamic responses in order to measure blood in the brain by using the changes in the ratio of oxygenated to de-oxygenated blood in order to infer that brain activity has taken place and oxygen is being used up by neurons
fMRI
The s_ method is used in fMRI to measure brain activity when participants perform the task they wish to study and compare to when the participant is engaging in a different task or no task at all. The portions of the brain that are more active when the participant is doing the task of interest are assumed to be more heavily involved in that task
subtraction
Multi-variate (or multi-voxel) pattern analysis (MVPA) is a type of _ data tool to determine what a participant is seeing or thinking simply by examining their pattern of brain activity
fMRI
A more affordable and portable research method to fMRI to measure hemodynamic response (albeit with less accuracy) is function - _ , which uses light in order to measure oxygenated vs non-oxygenated hemoglobal, a component of blood
near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS)
fMRI and EEG are _ techniques
correlational
_ _ _ can go further than fMRI and EEG by determining the CAUSAL effects of specific brain regions on behaviour, using strong pulses that are able to penetrate through the skull and temporarily disrupt the electrical activity of the brain
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
TMS has _ spatial and _ temporal resolution
high; high
Limitations of TMS include
an inability to precisely pinpoint what effect it is having on the brain and
it may generate _ or _ behaviour in neurons, depending on the state of the brain when it is applied
excitatory or inhibitory
Conversion of info from the physical domain to a neural code is called t_
transduction
Wundt developed the first ideas about:
experimentation
attention
_
language
memory
William James, the father of American psychology, championed _, and was interested in studying the purpose of thought, rather than its elements
functionalism
concerned with prediction and control through direct observation - why are things happening the way they do?
_ism offered a way to study publicly observable functions of the mind
Behaviourism
Pavlov’s dog experiment is an example of showing how behaviour can change, and that it can be studied
Skinner developed _ conditioning, which involves behaviour modification frequently used today
operant
a type of behaviourism (championed by Watson)
_ argued that behaviour is not just a result of cause and effect; learning can be latent (no reward or punishment)
Tolman
mouse can learn how to find food if searches maze before experiment
Attention, problem solving and _ _ were important for cognitivists
decision making
The four themes in cognitive psychology are:
1. representationalism - how the unobservable mind can act on the real world
2. computation - assumes the mind is an info processor
3. biological perspective - believes info is represented as patterns of activity between interconnected neurons in a way similar to the brain
4. _ _ - the study of cognition as we interact with the world
embodied cognition
A _ would argue that info isn’t represented by symbols; it is a pattern of activation spread across units
connectionist ( a biological perspective)
Levels of processing theory is a type of _ problem because although items have representation, it doesn’t explain how it happens
grounding
vs. embodied cognition - eliminates the need for representations by perceptual, motor and emotional activity given to the body)
