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Biology > Ch. 41 - Human Reproduction > Flashcards

Ch. 41 - Human Reproduction Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a gonad?

A

A gonad is an organ that produces sex cells in animals.

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2
Q

Draw a diagram of the male reproductive system.

A

Top to bottom, should include:
Seminal vesicles, prostate gland, Cowper’s gland, urethra, sperm duct, penis, epididymis, testis, scrotum.
Diagram pg. 468.

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3
Q

What is the purpose of the testes?

A

The testes produce sperm by meiosis. Testosterone is produced in the testes.

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4
Q

What is the purpose of the scrotum?

A

The scrotum holds the testes outside the body. The body is too warm for meiosis to take place normally. A temperature of 35C is needed as opposed to 37C.

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5
Q

What is the purpose of the epididymis? (SH)

A

The tubules join together at the epididymis. [Sperm mature and are stored in the epididymis for up to six weeks.] If they are not released, resorption occurs and the sperm are broken down and taken back into the bloodstream.

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6
Q

What is the purpose of the sperm duct?

A

The sperm ducts (vas deferens) carry sperm into the urethra.

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7
Q

What is a vasectomy? (SH)

A

A vasectomy is an operation where each vas deferens is cut and sealed.

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8
Q

What is the purpose of the urethra?

A

The urethra carries out either urine or sperm.

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9
Q

What is semen?

A

Semen is a fluid containing sperm and seminal fluid.

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10
Q

Where is seminal fluid produced?

A

Seminal fluid is produced by the seminal vesicles, the prostate gland and the Cowper’s gland.

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11
Q

Draw a structure of a sperm cell.

A

Swimming left, from left to right:
The acrosome contains enzymes that can digest the membrane of the egg.
The nucleus contains 23 chromosomes.
The midpiece contains mitochondria.
The tail(flagellum) allows it to swim.
Diagram pg. 468.

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12
Q

How is FSH used in the male reproductive system?

A

Follicle stimulating hormone is produced by the pituitary gland and causes the diploid sperm producing cells in the testes to divide by meiosis and produce haploid sperm.

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13
Q

How is LH used in the male reproductive system?

A

Luteinizing hormone is produced by the pituitary gland and it stimulates the testes to produce testosterone.

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14
Q

What is an androgen?

A

An androgen is a male hormone.

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15
Q

What are the effects of testosterone in males?

A

Testosterone causes primary male sex characteristics in early life; growth of reproductive parts(penis) and the descent of testes into the scrotum. After puberty, testosterone spikes, causing penis enlargement and secondary male characteristics.

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16
Q

What are secondary sexual characteristics?

A

Secondary sexual characteristics are those features that distinguish males from females, apart from sex organs.

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17
Q

List secondary male characteristics.

A

Growth of pubic and facial hair. Enlargement of larynx, deepening the voice. Increased muscle mass. Wide shoulders. Increased secretion of sebum.

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18
Q

What is infertility?

A

Infertility is the inability to produce offspring.

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19
Q

What is the main cause of male infertility?

A

The main cause of male infertility is a low sperm count.

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20
Q

How does a low sperm count arise?

A

Low sperm counts may be caused by persistent cigarette smoking, alcohol drinking, use of marijuana or anabolic steroids. Mumps may inhibit sperm production.

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21
Q

How can low sperm count be corrected?

A

Stopping cigarette smoking and drug abuse. Reducing alcohol consumption and stress. Hormone supplements may be adiministered.

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22
Q

What is ovulation?

A

Ovulation is the release of an egg from the ovary.

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23
Q

What is the purpose of the ovaries?

A

The ovaries produce eggs and female hormones. They store about 1 million eggs at birth.

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24
Q

What is the oviduct?

A

The oviduct consists of the funnel and the fallopian tubes.

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25
Q

Draw a diagram of the female reproductive system.

A

Top to bottom:
Fallopian tubes, funnel, uterus, ovary, endometrium, cervix, vagina, vulva.
Diagram pg. 470.

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26
Q

How is the egg moved along the Fallopian tube?

A

The egg is moved along the Fallopian tubes by cilia and muscular peristalsis. The egg is either fertilised or dies in the Fallopian tube.

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27
Q

What is the uterus?

A

The uterus or womb, holds the baby during pregnancy. Its inner lining is called the endometrium and its opening is called the cervix.

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28
Q

What is the menstrual cycle?

A

The menstrual cycle is a series of events that occurs on average every 28 days in females if fertilisation hasn’t taken place.

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29
Q

What is menopause?

A

Menopause is when ovulation and menstruation stops happening in females.

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30
Q

Describe the events of the 1st part (days 1 to 5) in the menstrual cycle.

A

Menstruation occurs. Menstruation is the discharge of the endometrium and the unfertilised egg. Meiosis occurs in an ovary to produce an egg, which is surrounded by the Graafian follicle.

31
Q

Describe the events of the 2nd part (days 6 to 14) in the menstrual cycle.

A

The Graafian follicle produces oestrogen, causing the endometrium to thicken. The oestrogen prevents new eggs from developing.

32
Q

Describe the events of the 3rd part (day 14) in the menstrual cycle.

A

Ovulation occurs when the Graafian follicle bursts to release the egg from the ovary. The egg is moved into the Fallopian tube. The egg is available for fertilisation approximately 48 hours after ovulation.

33
Q

Describe the events of the 4th part (days 14 to 28) in the menstrual cycle.

A

The Graafian follicle develops into the corpus luteum(yellow body). The corpus luteum produces progesterone, causing further thickening of the endometrium. Progesterone prevents new eggs from forming. The unfertilised, released egg dies by day 16. The corpus luteum degenerates around day 22, reducing progesterone. This leads to menstruation on day 28, lasting around 5 days.

34
Q

List secondary female characteristics.

A

Maturation of breasts. Wide pelvis. Increased body fat. Growth of pubic hair.

35
Q

What is the most common cause of female infertility?

A

The most common cause of female infertility is the failure to ovulate.

36
Q

What is the cause of female endocrine gland failure?

A

Endocrine gland failure involves minimal or excess production of LH and FSH.

37
Q

What are some corrective measures for endocrine gland failure?

A

Administration of hormone supplements.

38
Q

State follicle stimulating hormone’s
-site of production
-time of production
-functions

A

FSH is produced in the pituitary gland.
It is produced in the 1st stage of the cycle (days 1 to 5)
It stimulates a few potential eggs to develop, surrounded by the Graafian follicle.

39
Q

State luteinising hormone’s
-site of production
-time of production
-functions

A

LH is produced in the pituitary gland.
It is produce in the 3rd stage of the cycle (day 14)
It causes ovulation. LH also causes the Graafian follicle to develop into the corpus luteum.

40
Q

How do hormones inhibit and promote other hormones in the female menstrual cycle?

A

FSH stimulates oestrogen production. Oestrogen inhibits FSH by negative feedback and it stimulated LH production. Once the Graafian follicle is developed into the corpus luteum by LH, progesterone is produced. Progesterone inhibits FSH by negative feedback. By day 28, FSH is not inhibited due to the degeneration of the corpus luteum.

41
Q

What are fibroids? Give symptoms, cause and treatment.

A

Fibroids are benign tumours of the uterus.
Large fibroids exhibit symptoms of pain, miscarriage or infertility.
Fibroids may be an abnormal response to oestrogen as it is more commonly seen in users of the contraceptive pill.
Larger fibroids are removed by surgery. A hysterectomy may be necessary; removal of the entire uterus.

42
Q

What is copulation?

A

Copulation is the act of sexual intercourse.

43
Q

What is an orgasm?

A

An orgasm is the physical and emotional sensations experienced at the peak of sexual excitement.

44
Q

What is ejaculation?

A

Ejaculation is the release of semen from the penis.

45
Q

What is insemination?

A

Insemination is the release of semen into the vagina.

46
Q

What is chemotaxis?

A

Chemotaxis is the swimming of the sperm towards chemicals released by the egg.

47
Q

What is fertilisation?

A

Fertilisation occurs when the haploid nucleus of the sperm fuses with the haploid nucleus of the egg to produce a diploid zygote.

48
Q

How long do human gametes survive without fertilisation?

A

The egg can survive for 2 days. Sperm can survive in the female reproductive system for 7 days.

49
Q

What is implantation? When does implantation occur?

A

Implantation is the embedding of the fertilised egg into the endometrium. Implantation occurs about 7 days after fertilisation.

50
Q

What is IVF?

A

In-vitro fertilisation involves removing eggs from an ovary and fertilising them outside the body.

51
Q

Where does the placenta originate?

A

The placenta originates from uterine tissue and embryonic tissue.

52
Q

State the functions of the placenta.

A

Placenta allows gases, nutrients and waste to be exchanged between the blood of the mother and embryo, by diffusion. It also prevents bloods from mixing as the blood groups may not be compatible and the mother’s blood pressure would damage the embryo. The placenta also produces progesterone.

53
Q

What is the amnion?

A

The amnion is a membrane that develops around the embryo which secretes amniotic fluid and surrounds and protects the embryo.

54
Q

What is a morula?

A

A morula is a solid ball of cells formed from a zygote by mitosis.

55
Q

Describe day 1 of the development of the zygote.

A

Fertilisation occurs on day 1.

56
Q

Describe day 3 of the development of the zygote.

A

The zygote has divided rapidly by mitosis and a morula has formed.

57
Q

Describe day 5 of the development of the zygote.

A

The morula has formed a blastocyst; a hollow ball of cells formed from a morula. The outer cells of the morula are the trophoblast, which develop into the placenta. The inner cell mass will form the embryo. The blastocyst has entered the uterus.

58
Q

Describe day 1 of the development of the zygote (now an embryo).

A

The inner cell mass has formed 3 germ layers; ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. Germ layers are basic layers of cells in the blastocyst from which all adult organs will form.

59
Q

What do the various germ layers develop into?

A

The ectoderm produces skin, nails, hair and nervous system.
The mesoderm produces muscles, skeleton, systems of excretion, circulation, respiration and reproduction.
The endoderm produces the inner lining of the digestive, respiratory and excretory systems, the liver and the pancreas.

60
Q

What happens after 8 weeks of embryonic development?

A

The heart forms and beats after 4 weeks. By the 8th week, sex is distinguishable and the embryo is now called a foetus.

61
Q

What happens after 3 months of embryonic development?

A

Bones grow to replace cartilage, ossification. External sex organs can be seen in scans.

62
Q

What is gestation?

A

Gestation is the length of time spent in the uterus from fertilisation to birth.

63
Q

How is progesterone produced during pregnancy?

A

For the first 12 weeks, progesterone is made by the corpus luteum in the ovary. After 12 weeks, it is then made by the placenta which acts as an endocrine gland. Immediately before birth, the placenta stops producing progesterone, causing the walls of the uterus to contract.

64
Q

How is oxytocin used during pregnancy?

A

Oxytocin is released by the pituitary gland during the onset of labour. Oxytocin causes stronger uterine contractions.

65
Q

What is lactation?

A

Lactation is the secretion of milk by the mammary glands of the female.

66
Q

What is colostrum?

A

Colostrum is a thick yellow fluid produced a few days after birth. It helps to nourish the baby and provides protection against infection.

67
Q

What is prolactin?

A

Prolactin stimulates milk production. It is produced in the pituitary gland, when progesterone drops and prolactin is no longer inhibited.

68
Q

List benefits to breastfeeding.

A

Contains ideal balance of nutrients for a baby. Supplies the baby with antibodies. It is sterile. Breastfeeding causes the uterus to contract. It also reduces the risk of breast cancer.

69
Q

What is birth control?

A

Birth control refers to methods taken to limit the number of children that are born.

70
Q

What is contraception?

A

Contraception is the deliberate prevention of pregnancy.

71
Q

What is natural contraception?

A

Natural contraception involves not having intercourse at those times in the menstrual cycle where pregnancy is possible. This can be done by tracking cycles.

72
Q

What is mechanical contraception?

A

Mechanical contraception involves using physical barriers to stop the sperm reaching the egg. Condoms for penis and diaphragms and caps for the vagina.

73
Q

What is chemical contraception?

A

Chemical contraception involves the use of spermicides and hormones. Spermicides are substances that kill sperm. Progesterone and oestrogen prevent ovulation.

74
Q

What is surgical contraception?

A

Surgical contraception involves sterilisation for females and vasectomy for males.

Biology (34 decks)

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