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Biology 1215 > ch 40, 39, + ecology > Flashcards

ch 40, 39, + ecology Flashcards

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1
Q

4 main stages of food processing

A
  1. ingestion
  2. digestion
  3. absorption
  4. elimination
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2
Q

can animals use macromolecs in their polymer state?

A

no; must be broken down into monomers first

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3
Q

digestion

A

the process of breaking down food into molecs small enough to be absorbed

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4
Q

monomers

A

fuel for ATP prod or for biosynth

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5
Q

what does mechanical fragmentation do?

A

incs SA for digestive enzymes

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6
Q

food vacoules

A

organelles in which hydrolytic enzymes break down food (intracellular digestion)

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7
Q

what is one advantage of having extracellular digestion?

A

much larger food than by phagocytosis

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8
Q

what groups do not have complete digestive tracts (2)?

A

cnidaria, platy’s

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9
Q

complete digestive tract (3)

A
  • mouth
  • digestive tube
  • anus
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10
Q

crop/stomach

A

storage & preliminary digestion

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11
Q

gizzard

A

grinding

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12
Q

intestine

A

absorption of nutrients into blood

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13
Q

what does a complete digestive tract enable?

A

ingestion of additional food before earlier meals are completely digested

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14
Q

peristalsis

A

rhythmic waves of contraction by smooth muscles in gut wall push food along

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15
Q

sphincters

A

muscular ring-like valves that regulate passage of material btwn specialized chambers

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16
Q

4 accessory glands

A
  • gall bladder
  • liver
  • pancreas
  • salivary glands
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17
Q

what does saliva lubricate food with?

A

a glycoprotein (mucin) + salivary amylase

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18
Q

what does salivary amylase do?

A

hydrolyzes starch and glycogen into smaller polysaccharides

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19
Q

tongue

A

tastes, manipulates, shapes food into a bolus

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20
Q

pharynx opens to both

A
  • esophagus

- trachea

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21
Q

epiglottis

A

a cartilaginous flap that blocks the glottis when swallowing

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22
Q

rugae

A

accordion-like folds in the stomach that stretch to accommodate food

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23
Q

what does the stomach secrete and for what?

A

gastric juices to churn

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24
Q

what is the pH of the gastric juices in your stomach

A

2

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25
Q

what do the gastric juices do (2)?

A
  • denatures pros

- kills most bacteria that are swallowed

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26
Q

pepsin

A

begins hydrolysis of pro’s by breaking peptide bonds

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27
Q

why is pepsin secreted in an inactive form, pepsinogen?

A

HCl activates it; don’t want it all the time

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28
Q

how many days does it take the epithelial cells in our stomach lining to be completely replaced by mitosis?

A

3 days

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29
Q

mixing and enzyme action converts food into nutrient rich..?

A

acid chyme

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30
Q

acid reflux/heartburn

A

occasional backflow into lower esophagus

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31
Q

pyloric sphincter

A

regulates the opening to the small intestine

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32
Q

how long, on avg, does it take for the stomach to empty?

A

2 hrs

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33
Q

small intestine (2)

A
  • digests

- absorbs nutrients into blood

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34
Q

how long is the small intestine in humans?

A

6m

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35
Q

what does the small intestine perform?

A

enzymatic hydrolysis

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36
Q

duodenum

A

first 25cm of the small intestine

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37
Q

acid chime mixes with digestive juices from (4)

A
  • pancreas
  • lives
  • gall bladder
  • intestinal epithelium
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38
Q

pancreas prods (2)

A
  • hydrolytic enzymes

- alkaline solution rich in bicarbonate, which red. the acidity

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39
Q

what produces bile?

A

the liver

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40
Q

where is bile stores until it is needed

A

gall bladder

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41
Q

bile salts in liver aid in the digestion of?

A

fats

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42
Q

what do pancreatic amylases do?

A

hydrolyze polysaccs into disaccs

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43
Q

what does maltase do?

A

splits maltose into 2 glucose molecs

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44
Q

sucrase splits sucrose into

A

glucose and fructose

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45
Q

what two molecs secreted in inactive form by the pancreas attack specific peptide bonds?

A

trypsin and chymotrypsin

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46
Q

how are fats dealt with (2)?

A
  1. bile salts coat droplets and keep them emulsified

2. lipase hydrolyses fat molecs into glycerol and fatty acids

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47
Q

where does most digestion occur?

A

duodenum

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48
Q

what two structures absorb nutrients with their huge SA?

A

jejunum and ileum

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49
Q

villi

A

fingerlike protections for absorption found on the intestinal lining with many microvilli on it

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50
Q

SA via (4) structures

A
  • length
  • plicae
  • villi
  • microvilli
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51
Q

what two cell layers separate lumen of intestine from the bloodstream?

A

intestinal epithelium and epithelium of capillaries

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52
Q

hepatic portal vessel (2)

A

where intestinal veins converge; leads to liver

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53
Q

regardless of carb content of meal, blood has glucose [] close to ?

A

0.1%

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54
Q

large intestine major function

A

reclaiming w

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55
Q

how long is the human colon?

A

1.5m

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56
Q

how much of the 7L of w secreted into the digestive tract every day is reabsorbed?

A

over 90%

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57
Q

colons have a rich flora of bacteria which (2)

A
  • are mostly harmless

- prod vitamins

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58
Q

what is one of the major reasons mammals have been so successful?

A

teeth; specialized dentition

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59
Q

who has longer intestinal tract:body size ratio?

A

herbivores and omni

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60
Q

what is harder to digest, meat or plants?

A

plants; cellulose

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61
Q

how do we break down cellulose?

A

w/ symbiotic bacteria in special fermentation chambers that have enzymes that can digest cellulose and simple sugars

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62
Q

homeostasis

A

steady state physiological condition of body

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63
Q

-ive feedback

A

a change in the variable being monitored triggers a response that counteracts initial fluctuation

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64
Q

what is the primary mechanism of homeostasis?

A

-ive feedback

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65
Q

when blood glucose levels rise above a certain point (2)

A
  1. pancreas secretes insulin into blood

2. insulin stimulates liver and muscle cells to make glycogen, dropping blood glucose lvls

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66
Q

when blood glucose levels drop below a certain point (2)

A
  1. pancreas secretes glycagon into blood

2. glycagon promotes breakdown of glycogen and release of glucose into blood

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67
Q

what is the endocrine function of the pancreas?

A

signals cells to regulate lvls in the blood

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68
Q

what is the exocrine function of the pancreas?

A

secretes digestive enzymes in ducts

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69
Q

+ive feedback

A

a change in some variable triggers mechanisms that amplify change

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70
Q

what is one example of +ive feedback that relates to cc?

A

albedo affect

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71
Q

who has an open circulatory system?

A

arthropods and mollusks

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72
Q

hemolymph

A

no distinction btwn blood and interstitial fluid

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73
Q

closed circ system

A

blood confined to vessels

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74
Q

closed circ system of vertebrates

A

cardiovascular system

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75
Q

atria

A

chambers that receive returning blood

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76
Q

ventricles

A

chambers that pump blood out

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77
Q

what happens to blood pres when blood flows through a capillary bed?

A

drops substantially

78
Q

how many chambers does a fish heart have?

A

2

79
Q

how many chambers do amphibians and reptiles hearts have?

A

3

80
Q

one disadvantage of amphibian hearts

A

mixing of O2 poor and rich blood

81
Q

what is one advantage to a 4 chambered heart?

A

restores pres and prevents blood mixing

82
Q

what is one essential adaptation for endotherms?

A

a 4 chambered heart

83
Q

how much more E do endotherms use over endotherms?

A

10x more

84
Q

4 chambered hearts in birds and mammals is an example of

A

convergent evolution

85
Q

ecology

A

the study of interactions btwn orgs and their env

86
Q

env includes

A

biotic and abiotic factors

87
Q

pop

A

a species

88
Q

community

A

pops that interact w/ each other in a specific area

89
Q

ecosystem/biome

A

community + abiotic factors

90
Q

organismal ecology studies ?

A

how orgs meet the challenges of their envs, through morphology, physiology, and behaviour

91
Q

pop ecology studies?

A

interactions w/in species; pop growth, size, structure

92
Q

community ecology studies?

A

interspecies interactions; parasitism, disease, predation, competition

93
Q

ecosystem ecology studies?

A

how E and nutrients flow through a ecosystem

94
Q

how to nutrients flow?

A

recycled

95
Q

E in a system

A

passed upwards but some is lost in every transformation

96
Q

what determined where a species is or isn’t found (4)

A
  1. ability to disperse
  2. behaviour
  3. biotic factors (predators, parasites, competitors, etc.)
  4. abiotic factors (geology, sunlight, climate)
97
Q

3 ways of sampling the density of a pop

A
  • sample plots (quadrats)
  • indirect indicators (nests, droppings, etc.)
  • mark & recapture
98
Q

3 ways of describing pops

A
  • density
  • dispersion
  • demography
99
Q

3 types of dispersion

A
  • clumping
  • uniform
  • random
100
Q

why would orgs clump (2)?

A
  • food, nesting sites, etc

- social behaviours, mating

101
Q

why would orgs be uniformly dispersed?

A

antagonistic interactions; territoriality, plant allelochemicals, etc

102
Q

why would orgs be randomly dispersed?

A

no interactions (rare)

103
Q

demography

A

the study of vital statistics that affect pop size

104
Q

what are some vital statistics that affect pop size (2)?

A
  • birth and immigration rates

- death and emigration rates

105
Q

life tables

A

summarize the vital stats of a pop

106
Q

what do life tables do (2)?

A
  • follow a cohort from birth to death

- measure mortality, survivorship, births, etc through diff age classes

107
Q

survivorship curves

A

plot a portion of cohort still alive vs age

108
Q

type 1

A

small # of well-cared for offspring; many survive to old age

109
Q

type 2

A

consistent line

110
Q

type 3

A

offspring w/ no parental care; many die young

111
Q

natural selection favours strategies that?

A

max lifetime repro success

112
Q

fitness

A

how many offspring you have that survive to adulthood compared to others in the pop

113
Q

good fitness is affected by (3)?

A
  • clutch size
  • # of repros/lifetime
  • age at 1st repro
114
Q

clutch

A

offspring/event

115
Q

how does clutch size relate to offspring size (2)?

A
  • smaller clutch, bigger offspring

- bigger clutch, smaller offspring

116
Q

early breeding females are often smaller. what does this result in (3)?

A
  • smaller clutch
  • less E for later clutches
  • lower lifetime repro success
117
Q

exponential growth model

A

assumes max rate of growth (r max)

118
Q

r max (3)

A
  • max birth rate per female
  • all kids survive
  • repro forever & faster->
119
Q

k

A

max # that env can support

120
Q

logistic pop growth

A

pop limited by K (Carrying capacity) of the env

121
Q

which model can life histories be related to?

A

logistic pop growth model

122
Q

r-selected species (5)

A
  • evolved to maximize r-max (inc quickly)
  • favours opportunists
  • many small offspring
  • no parental care
  • type 3 survivorship curves
123
Q

k-selected species (5)

A
  • evolved in pops that were near carrying capacity (high density)
  • not opportunists
  • few, big offspring
  • parental care
  • long life; delayed maturity
  • type 1 survivorship curves
124
Q

what regulates pop size?

A

a combination of density dependent and independent factors

125
Q

density dependent pop regulation

A

effects inc as pop size incs; tends to keep the pop around k

126
Q

3 eg of effects that inc as pop incs

A
  • less resources per individual
  • predation incs
  • crowding changes behaviour/physiology
127
Q

what does less resources/individual mean for a pop (2)?

A
  • less food, territories, nest sites

- lower survival, less offspring

128
Q

what does crowding mean for a pop?

A

delayed maturity, fewer offspring

129
Q

density independent factors

A

abiotic factors that decrease a pops size no matter how big/small; natural disaster, weather

130
Q

fluctuations

A
  • r-selected spp sometimes have big fluctuations

- k has some

131
Q

cycles (2)

A
  • 10 or 12 yr turns

- regular cycles may be due to time lags of density-dependent factors (predation, epidemics)

132
Q

what model do human pops follow?

A

exponential

133
Q

5 reasons humans follow the exponential model

A
  • clean w
  • sanitation
  • medicine
  • agri
  • technology/mechanization
134
Q

what are 4 ways medicine helps humans achieve the exponential growth model?

A
  • stop of infectious disease
  • antibiotics
  • hygene
  • immunization
135
Q

rate of growth of human pop influenced by (2)

A
  • what country you’re in

- age structure (lots of kids inc pop later)

136
Q

how many kids/woman would keep the pop even?

A

2.1

137
Q

carrying cap for humans?

A

10-15 bill

138
Q

ecological footprint

A

land and w area needed by a nation/person to get all of its resources and dispose of its wastes

139
Q

why does ecological footprint vary with country?

A

because resources are limited; not evenly distributed

140
Q

what is the human pop doing to the carrying capacity for other spp?

A

dec

141
Q

interspecific

A

existing or occurring between different species

142
Q

intraspecific

A

produced, occurring, or existing within a species or between individuals of a single species

143
Q

interspecific interactions include (7)

A
  • competition
  • predation
  • herbivory
  • mutualism
  • disease
  • commensalism
  • parasitism
144
Q

ecological niche

A

the sum of a species’ use of the biotic and abiotic resources in its env; how and where it makes its living

145
Q

competitive exclusion principle

A

no two species can occupy exactly the same niche

146
Q

what happens if two species occupy the same niche (4)?

A
  • the superior competitor may drive other spp to extinction
  • competition may limit a sp to a more limited niche than it might otherwise occupy
  • species w/ similar niches may come to subdivide the niche (resource partitioning)
  • direct competition may push sympatric pops od species to become diff (character displacement)
147
Q

predation drives

A

evolutionary “arms race”

148
Q

predators evolved (4)

A
  • speed
  • good sensory systems
  • camoflague
  • mimicry
149
Q

prey evolved (7)

A
  • speed
  • hiding behaviour
  • cryptic colouration
  • mechanical defenses
  • group defenses
  • group vigilance
  • chem defenses
150
Q

aposematic colouration

A

warning of defenses

151
Q

Batesian mimicry

A

harmless sp resembles a dangerous one

152
Q

Mullerian mimicry

A

several diff spp resemble each other

153
Q

herbivory

A

plant/algae is partially consumed

154
Q

plant adaptations (3)

A
  • tough covering hairs
  • gritiness
  • 2ndary compounds (toxins, etc)
155
Q

herbivore adaptations (2)

A
  • ability to detect plant

- ability to overcome host defenses (detoxify, store to use them itself, etc)

156
Q

parasitism

A

parasites harm the host

157
Q

ectoparasites

A

found on outside of host

158
Q

endoparasites

A

feed inside host

159
Q

eg. salt march community

A

parasitism may play an important role in forming community structure

160
Q

disease is mostly due to microscopic pathogens (4)

A

viruses, bacteria, fungi, protists

161
Q

what are 2 species that are susceptible hosts to diseases?

A
  • chesnut

- elm

162
Q

mutualism

A

interactions that favour both spp

163
Q

two egs of mutualism

A
  • Acacia and speudomyrex ant

- pollinators and angiosperms

164
Q

commensalism

A

one species benefits, one neither gains nor loses

165
Q

co-evolution

A

one sp has put a selective pressure on the other and vice versa

166
Q

one eg of commensalism

A

cattle and birds

167
Q

species diversity

A

the variety of diff kinds of orgs in a comm

168
Q

community characteristics (4)

A
  • species diversity
  • feeding relationships
  • the role of 1 or 2 key species
  • responses to disturbance
169
Q

2 components of species diversity

A
  • species richness

- relative abundance of each spp

170
Q

why is it better to think in food webs rather than food chains?

A

many spp don’t occupy just one trophic level

171
Q

E transfer btwn trophic lvls is usually what % efficient?

A

under 20% (limits food chain length)

172
Q

what lvl of a food chain is the most precarious?

A

top

173
Q

dominant spp

A

most abundant/have greatest biomass

174
Q

what do dominant spp do?

A

influence which other spp can survive there

175
Q

keystone spp

A

need to be abundant but act to maintain diversity (not always dom)

176
Q

2 egs of keystone species

A
  • seastars: eat mussels and stop them from dom

- sea otters: eat sea urchins that would otherwise destroy kelp forests

177
Q

ecosystem engineers

A

cause physical changes that affect comm structure

178
Q

3 egs of ecosystem engineers

A
  • humans
  • beavers
  • termites
179
Q

one eg of a comm that has evolved in the face of regular disturbances

A

lodgepole pine; fire

180
Q

ecological succession

A

gradual predictable change in a comm structure after a disturbance

181
Q

primary succession

A

begins from bare rock

182
Q

secondary succession

A

begins from intact soil

183
Q

eg of secondary succession

A

bare rock -> moss/fireweed -> shrubs -> alder forest -> spruce forest -> hemlock and spruce forest (climax)

184
Q

why does succession occur (2)?

A
  • each stage creates conditions that favour the next stage

- inhibit members of current stage (alders killing their own kinds)

185
Q

why is there greater diversity in tropical habitats (2)?

A
  • more E

- stability

186
Q

island equil model (3)

A
  • predicts that species # is related to ‘island’ size and distance to a ‘mainland’
  • more spp = lower rate of arrival of new spp b/c most of those spp are already on the island
  • more extinctions of new arrivals b/c more competitive exclusion
187
Q

island equil model predicts

A

more species on large islands near the mainland

188
Q

individualistic hypothesis

A

the plant spp in a place simply have similar ecological reqs

189
Q

integrated hypothesis

A

comm is an association of ecologically linked spp

190
Q

eg of integrated hyp

A

hemlock and western red cedar

Biology 1215 (7 decks)

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