Bio Lab Midterm 1 Flashcards
Labs 1-4
extant
still living
extinction
the termination of an organism or of a group of organisms, usually a species
LUCA (2)
Last Universal Common Ancestor
- the most recent population of organisms from which all organisms now living on Earth have a common descent
- LUCA is the most recent common ancestor of all current life on Earth
taxonomy
scientific discipline concerned with naming and classifying groups of biological organisms
domain (2)
- the highest taxonomic rank of organisms in which there are three groupings: Archaea, Bacteria and Eukarya
- most inclusive
kingdom
- a taxonomic category grouping together all forms of life having certain fundamental characteristics in common
- Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, protists, fungi, plants and animals
phylum (2)
- organisms in a phylum share a set a characteristics that distinguishes them from organisms in another phylum
- a major taxonomic division of living organisms that contain one or more classes
class
a classification of organisms that contain general common traits, such as having a backbone, eight legs, etc.
order
a taxonomic rank used in classifying organisms comprised of families sharing a set of similar nature or character
family
a taxonomic group of one or more genera, united by a common attribute
genus
any of the taxonomic groups into which a family is divided and which contains one or more species
species
an individual belonging to a group of organisms (or the entire group itself) having common characteristics and (usually) are capable of mating with one another to produce fertile offspring
taxonomic order
Dutch Kings Play Chess On Finely Ground Sand
monophyletic clades
where all branches converge on a common ancestor prior to joining other clades
paraphyletic group
exclude some descendants of the last common ancestor of the group
polyphyletic group
do not converge on a common ancestor prior to joining other groups, but often share morphological similarities
character
anatomical, physiological, or molecular feature found in an organism
ancestral character
trait originally present in the ancestor of a given group
(shared) derived character
features in organisms that have been modified for specific functions as a result of evolution
amniota
mammals and reptiles
homologous characters
shared characteristics that can be traced back to a common ancestor (eg. wings of dragonflies and butterflies)
convergent evolution
independent evolution of similar characteristics due to similiar ecological pressures
analogous characters
shares characters that are a result of convergent evolution and not common ancestry (eg. bat and bird wings)
progressivism
evolution is just progressing through a long series of lesser organisms only to finally reach humans, which are the pinnacle of evolution
- WRONG
MRCA (2)
Most Recent Common Ancestor
- the most recent individual from which all the organisms are directly descende
- groups of genes rather than organisms
extinct
no longer existing/living
outgroup
the species or taxon that is clearly least related to the others and thus branches off the bottom of the tree
conserved gene sequences
- DNA sequences that move through evolutionary time relatively unchanged
- usually linked to a critical function
non-coding regions
- typically diverge quickly after a speciation event
- very weak selection against mutations
parsimonious
simplest explanation of data
cocci
round bacteria
bacilli
rod-shaped bacteria
spirochetes
flexible, spiral shaped cells
cyanobacteria (3)
- much larger than traditional bacteria
- all photosynthetic
- generally grow in filaments
filaments
a chain of cells
peptidoglycan
polymer that makes up the cell walls of bacteria and protects the cell from lysis
gram-positive bacteria
- have a thick layer of peptidoglycan
- stain purple
gram-negative bacteria
- have a thin layer of peptidoglycan
- stain pink
clade
a group of organisms that share a common, unique ancestor
protist
a non-monophyletic group of euk cells that are not plants, animals, or fungi
photoautotrophic
using light as an E source to synth org compounds from inorg materials
heterotrophic
dependent on consuming organisms or org material from the env
mixotrophs
able to use a combination of both heterotrophic and photosynthetic nutrition
primary producers
photoautotrophs
symbiosis
organisms that live on or inside another org
parasitism
symbiosis with a negative affect on the host
mutualism
symbiosis with a beneficial affect on the host
free-living organisms
complete their entire life-cycle independent of other orgs
trypanosomes
single celled, internal parasites of animals (African Sleeping Sickness)
kinetoplast
greatly enlarged mitochondrion
Euglena
single celled photosynth orgs that move using a flagellum
dinoflagellates (2)
- motile photosynth orgs important to marine ecosystems
- many are mixotrophs
what do dinoflagellates cause?
Red Tide
Red Tide (2)
- a discoloration of seawater caused by a bloom of toxic red dinoflagellates
- transferred to humans by consumption of infected filter feeders (eg. shellfish)
Plasmodium
a parasite of animals (Malaria)
Paramecium
single celled orgs that use many cilia for locomotion
diatoms
free-living, unicellular organisms that have a unique glass-like cell wall made of silica
phaeophyta
multicellular, photosynth protists (brown algae)
chlorophyll
green photosynth pigment
brown cartenoid
make brown algae brown
foraminifera
single celled heterotrophs that prod a porous internal shell of calcium carbonate
rhodophyta
red algae
chlorophyta
green algae
haploid (1n) gametophyte
a gamete\ophyte containing half of the number of homologous chromosomes in somatic cells
diploid (2n) sporophyte
a sporophyte containing two complete sets of chromosomes, one from each parent
alternation of generations
- occurs in orgs that have distinct sexual haploid and asexual diploid stages
- a multicellular gametophyte, which is haploid with n chromosomes, alternates with a multicellular sporophyte, which is diploid with 2n chromosomes, made up of n pairs
gametophyte
gamete prod plant (f)
sporophyte
spore prod plant (m)
dominant generation
generation that is largest in size and longest lasting
archegonium
small tube that makes a single egg
antheridia
small sac that prod many sperm
gemma cups
small cup-like structures containing green gemmae, each of which will grow into a new haploid liverwort plant once dispersed
asexual repro
a form of reproduction in which an organism creates a genetically-similar or identical copy of itself without a contribution of genetic material from another individual.(eg. mitosis)
capsule (sporangium)
capsule in which spores are produced by an organism
sorus
a cluster of spore-producing receptacles on the underside of a fern frond
gymnonsperm
plants that prod naked seeds
angiosperms
flowering plants that prod seeds inside fruits
monocot(lydon)
- a flowering plant with an embryo that bears a single cotyledon (seed leaf)
- typically have elongated stalkless leaves with parallel veins
eudicot(lydon)
- a flowering plant with an embryo that bears two cotyledons (seed leaves)
- typically have broad, stalked leaves with netlike veins
male conifer cone
release pollen and have tight “scales”
female conifer cone
have unfertilized seeds, looser scales, and sit lower on a tree
megaspore
the larger of the two kinds of spores characteristically produced by seed plants and a few fern allies, developing into a female gametophyte
ovule
part of the female reproductive organ in seed plants where female reproductive cells are made and contained; eventually develops into a seed after fertilization
microspore
male gametophyte; pollen grain
pollination
pollen grain to female cone
fertilization
sperm + egg
ploidy
the number of sets of chromosomes in a cell, or in the cells of an organism
embryo sac
female gametophyte containing many nuclei
triploid (3n) endosperm
nucleus derived from the fusion of two polar nuclei from the female parent and one sperm nucleus from the male
seed coat
outer layer of the seed
cotyledon
an embryonic leaf in seed-bearing plants, one or more of which are the first leaves to appear from a germinating seed
embryo
a young, developing plant
xylem
transports w and minerals
phloem (2)
- stain pink-purple
- transports carbogydrates from photosynth
vascular bundles
xylem + phloem
sclerenchyma
strengthening tissue in a plant, formed from cells with thickened, typically lignified, walls
root
the part of a plant that grows downward and holds the plant in place, absorbs water and minerals from the soil, and often stores food
shoot
aerial portions of a plant, including stem, branches, leaves, and new immature growth on a plant
stem
a slender or elongated structure that supports a plant or fungus and typically bears leaves
flowers
plant structures involved in sexual reproduction
epidermal tissue
outer layer of cells of the stems, roots, and leaves of plants
vascular tissue
the tissue in higher plants that constitutes the vascular system, consisting of phloem and xylem, by which water and nutrients are conducted throughout the plant
ground tissue
a plant tissue other than those of the dermal tissues and the vascular tissues that arises from the ground meristem
cortex (2)
- tissue located between the vascular bundles and epidermis
- may contain stored carbohydrates, resins, latex, essential oils, tannins, etc.
epidermis (2)
- single layer of cells that covers the leaves, flowers, roots and stems of plants that forms a boundary between the plant and the external environment
- protection against water loss, regulation of gas exchange, secretion of metabolic compounds, and absorption of water and mineral nutrients
mycorrhizae
a symbiotic association between a fungus and a plant
root hairs
elongated microscopic outgrowths from the outer layer of cells in a root, absorbing moisture and nutrients from the soil
taproots
a dominant vertical root that grows very deep into the soil, with smaller secordary roots, and are typical or eudicots
fibrous roots
mat of thread-like roots that do not grow very deep into the soil and are typical of monocots
pith
ground tissue containing no vascular bundles, located in the middle of the stem
vascular cambium
- main growth layer in the stems and roots of many plants, specifically in dicots
- produces xylem on the inside and phloem on the outside
thorn
a modified plant organ, especially a stem, that is stiffened and terminates in a sharp point
stomates
a tiny pore in a plant leaf surrounded by a pair of guard cells that regulate its opening and closure, and serves as the site for gas exchange
transpiration
the process where plants absorb water through the roots and then give off water vapor through pores in their leaves
guard cells
a pair of cells found on each side of a stomatal opening, which has properties enabling the contraction and expansion of the stomatal pore
palisade mesophyll
tightly packed, columnar cells, each containing many chloroplasts, in a leaf
spongy mesophyll
the lower layer of the ground tissue of a leaf, characteristically containing irregularly shaped cells with relatively few chloroplasts and large intercellular spaces
cuticle
extracellular hydrophobic layer that provides protection
spine
modifications of a leaf but with no chloroplasts
tendril
slender climbing organ formed by modification of a part of a plant, such as a stem/leaf/petiole
hyphae
long filamentous branches found in fungi
mycelium
dense mat of hyphae
sexual repro
a mode of reproduction that involves fusion of female gamete and male gamete
mitosis
a method of cell division, in which the nucleus divides into daughter nuclei, each containing the same number of chromosomes as the parent nucleus
meiosis
chromosome numbers don’t double with each generation and results in spores with varied genetic content
zygosporangium
produces haploid spores on a sporangium by meiosis
lichen
symbiotic organisms made up by the association of microscopic green algae or cyanobacteria and filamentous fungi
ascus
a sac containing 8 haploid ascopores
ascospores
a spore contained in an ascus under optimal conditions
basidia
a club-like structure attached to gills/pores of the reproductive
basidiospores
reproductive spores produced by specialized fungal cells called basidia
why are all phylogenetic trees hypotheses? (2)
- constantly changing as new species are discovered
- unable to go back in time and directly verify the exact branching pattern
human taxonomy (domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species)
Domain: Eukarya Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Primates Family: Hominidae Genus: Homo Species: sapiens
are milk prod mammary glands ancestral or derived?
derived
are hinged jaws in mammals ancestral or derived?
ancestral
are the wings of butterflies and birds homologous or analogous?
analogous
are the wings of dragonflies and butterflies analogous or homologous?
homologous
why is progressivism incorrect?
there is no end form to evolution and we are not it
is the shared ancestor one of its descendents?
no; it is something between the two
what is a gene?
a section of a DNA molec that codes for a protein (& some RNA)
what is a non-coding region? (2)
- the section of a gene that does not code for anything
- very weak selection against mutationt
what is a genome?
a complete set of genetic material in an organism
regions with high similarities in a gene sequence
highly conserved genes probably linked to a critical function
are traditional becteria photosynth?
no
are cells in cyanobacterial filaments called cocci or bacilli?
no
e.coli morphology and gram stain
bascillus; negative (pink)
s. epidermis morphology and gram stain
coccus; positive (purple)
bacterial colony
multiple microorganisms that are all from 1 mother cell
what are 2 gram positive coccus bacteria who grow well in salty envs?
staphylococcus aureus and epidermidis
which bacteria, staphylococcus aureus or staphylococcus epidermidis, can ferment mannitol, a sugar alcohol?
aureus (YELLOW)
two ways euks sig duffer from prokaryotes?
- linear DNA vs circular
- histones vs none
all photosynth protists are called?
algae
zooxanthellae
photosynth dinoflagellates that live in a mutualistic relationship w/ reef building corals
how do zooxanthellae benefic the reef building coral? (2)
- algae prod o and helps the coral remove waste
- supply coral w/ glucose, glycerol, and amino acids
two ways diatoms are used comercially?
- matches
- toothpaste
what kind of clade are seaweeds?
paraphyletic
eudidoc stem
vascular bundles in a ring
monocot stem
vascular bundles scattered randomly
non-vascular plants (4)
- have flagellated sperm
- lack true roots, stems, or leaves
- terrestrial
- small
what are two examples of non-vascular plants?
liverworts and mosses
what is an example of a seedless vascular plant?
a fern
4 phyla of gymnosperms
- Cycadophyta
- Ginkgophyta
- Gnetophyta
- Coniferophyta
what do flowers in angiosperms do?
attract pollinators to encourage fertilization
what do fruits in angiosperms do?
help ensure successful seed dispersal
are angiosperms gymnosperms?
no
how many sperm do angiosperm microspores contain?
2
double fertilization
fertilization characteristic of seed plants in which one sperm nucleus fuses w/ the egg nucleus to form an embryo and another fuses w/ the polar nuclei to form the endosperm
what are monocot flower parts (petals/anthers) in multiples of?
3
what are eudicot flower parts (petals/anthers) in multiples of?
4 or 5
what is the pattern of leaf venation in monocots?
parallel
what is the pattern of leaf venation in eudicots?
net-like
common features of wind pollinated flowers (4)
- dry, light pollen
- small unscented flowers
- long fragile stamens
- extended stigmas
common features of fly pollinated flowers (3)
- must offer food (nectar, pollen)
- foul odor
- dark or dull colour
common features of bird pollinated flowers (4)
- must offer food (nectar, pollen)
- odorless
- usually red (hummingbirds)
- long tubes
common features of bee pollinated flowers (7)
- must offer food (nectar, pollen)
- sweet odor
- warmth
- yellow, blue, ultraviolet colours
- long tubes
- occasionally use sexual mimicry
- most common vector
biological definition of fruit
an organ that contains seeds, protecting these as they develop and aiding their dispersal
gymnosperm
a plant which produces seeds that are not contained within an ovary or fruit, but rather are open to the air and are directly fertilized by pollination
3 main types of tissues in plants
- epidermal
- vascular
- ground tissue
xylem under a microscope
stains red due to lingin strengthening its cell walls
phloem under a microscope
- small, thin-walled
- blue/green
- alternating large and small cells
what are the main functions of a root?
to absorb w and nutrients
what is the advantage of the root modification of sweet potatoes?
lateral root/tubers/taproots store food/E (glucose/starch) underground for later
what is the advantage of the prop roots of corn?
mechanical support so they can grow tall and resist wind + deal with the weight of the corn
what is the advantage to the aerial roots of orchids?
spongy roots absorb w, dust, and other org matter from the air (tropical)
examples of ground tissue
cortex, pith
differentiating sclerenchyma and xylem under the microscope (they both stain red)
- sclerenchyma walls are much thicker than xylem cell walls
- xylem are larger and hollow
function of the outer cortex in buttercups?
photosynth
function of the inner cortex in buttercups?
stores org molecs
is there a vascular cambium in monocot’s vascular bundles?
no, as monocots do not produce wood
order of tissues from epidermis to pith (8)
- epidermis
- cortex
- primary phloem
- vascular cambium
- primary xylem
- secondary phloem
- secondary xylem
- pith
3 ways the prod of wood improves a plants ability to survive in its env?
- stability
- transport
- storage
how are the stem modifications of potatoe tubers beneficial? (2)
- survival of winter/dry months (asexual repro)
- repro when conditions are right
how are the stem modifications of cactus stems beneficial? (2)
- fleshy, large photosynth area
- expands to retain more w (storage)
how are the stem modifications of Epiphyllum stems beneficial? (2)
- stem flattens into leaf shapes
- succulent for w storage
how are the stem modifications of the hawthorn torn beneficial?
help protect the plant from predation
broad thin leaves (2)
- water loss through transpiration
- heat loss
where on the privet leaf are the guard cells?
corners of the outer epidermis, around the stomata
what is the function of carniverous leaves?
assist in nutrient uptake from captured prey
what is the benefic to having succulent leaves?
lower SA:V ratio to retain moisture in dry envs
a thorn is a modified?
stem
a spine is a modified?
leaf
3 ways Oleander’s prevent w loss
- thick cuticle
- pockets
- several layers of epidermis
3 fungal phyla
- Zygomycota
- Ascomycota
- Basiodiomycota
Zygomycota
common bread mold
Ascomycota
cup fungi, unicellular yeast, mildews
Basiodiomycota
mushrooms, bracket fungi, puffballs
2 possible photosynth partners w/ lichens
- alga
2. cyanobacteria
