Ch 4 & 5 Flashcards
Coping
any response to stress that aims to reduce it, whether adaptive or maladaptive; the process by which people try to manage the perceived discrepancy between the appraised demands and resources in a stressful situation
How is coping a process?
it is a dynamic series of appraisals and reappraisals that adjust to shifts in person-environment relationships
2 main functions of coping
(1) alter the problem causing the stress or (2) regulate the emotional response to the problem
6 types of coping
problem-focused coping, emotion-focused coping, relationship-focused coping, meaning-focused coping, approach coping, avoidance coping
Problem-focused coping
direct efforts to solve the problem by either changing the situation (reducing the demands of a stressful situation) or changing/improving oneself (expanding one’s resources)
Emotion-focused coping
efforts to manage emotions generated by the stressful situation e.g. denial, escape-avoidance, distancing, wishful thinking, suppression, expression, positive reappraisal etc.
When do people tend to use emotion-focused coping?
when they believe they can do little to change stressful conditions and their resources inadequate to meet the demands of the stressor
Relationship-focused coping
efforts to maintain and manage social relationships during stressful periods e.g. emphatic responding, perspective taking, support seeking and provision, compromise etc.
Dyadic coping
type of relationship-focused coping wherein partners work together to recognize their interdependence in dealing with a stressor
Benefits of emotional expression vs emotional processing
high levels of emotional expression are associated with improved self-perceived health, increased vigor, fewer medical visits, and decreased distress; high levels of emotional processing are linked to increased distress (due to rumination)
Maladaptive examples of relationship-focused coping
interpersonal withdrawal or isolation, and confrontation
Demand-withdrawal pattern of marital interaction
when one partner engages in withdrawal and the other engages in confrontation at the same time
Which personality traits are associated with adaptive and successful coping?
high extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness
Emphatic responding
taking the other person’s perspective
Meaning-focused coping
efforts to manage the meaning of an event or situation; similar to positive reappraisal
Folkman’s definition of meaning-focused coping
drawing on beliefs, values, and existential goals to motivate and sustain coping and well-being in difficult times
Avoidance coping
attempts to distance oneself from the problem and not think about it; can be done cognitively or behaviorally (e.g. substance use)
Approach coping
attempts to actively deal with the problem or manage the tension, especially when controllable; can be done cognitively or behaviorally
Possible benefits of approach coping
appropriate action, release of emotions, assimilation or processing of trauma, stress reduction
Possible costs of approach coping
increased distress, non-productive worry and rumination
Possible benefits of avoidance coping
short-term stress reduction, allows for dosing or processing done in increments, increased hope and courage
Possible costs of avoidance coping
increased distress, interference with action, emotional numbness, disruptive behaviors
What is the best indicator of effective coping?
the outcome (typically psychological outcomes and relationship functioning)
Proactive coping
efforts taken that prevent or minimize stress, typically using problem-focused methods
Methods for reducing the potential for stress
enhancing social support and interpersonal management (e.g. assertiveness training), personal control, exercise, being well-organized and prepared for an impending stressor
Differences in social network among men and women
men tend to have larger social networks but women rely on them more effectively for support
Assertiveness
expressing one’s opinions and preferences directly, but without insult or intimidation directed toward the other person
3 elements that comprise time management
setting goal that are attainable, making daily to-do lists to prioritize goals, and setting a schedule for the day to allocate time for each item in the list
Psychological resilience
positive adaption or successful coping after a stressful or adverse situation without a lasting impact on health
3 aspects of personality involved in resilience
high self-esteem, personal control, and optimism
Personal control
the feeling that one can make decisions and take effective action to produce desirable outcomes and avoid undesirable ones
2 types of personal control
behavioral and cognitive
Behavioral control
the ability to take concrete action to reduce the impact of a stressor, either its duration or intensity
Cognitive control
the ability to use thought processes or strategies to modify the impact of a stressor (e.g. positive reappraisal)
Self-efficacy
belief that one can succeed at a certain activity or goal one desires to accomplish
How does one decide whether to attempt an activity?
looking at outcome expectancy (if the behavior will lead to a favorable outcome) and self-efficacy expectancy (if they can perform the behavior properly)
Internal vs external locus of control
believing one has control over their successes and failures; believing that their lives are controlled by external forces (more common in older adults)
Learned helplessness
being in uncontrollable situations that lead to repeated failure may produce feelings of helplessness and reduce feelings of personal control
What cognitive process does the experience of uncontrollable negative events result in?
attribution
3 dimensions of situation that people make judgements about in attribution
did it occur due to internal or external locus of control, a long-lasting (stable) or temporary (unstable) cause, global and wide-ranging or narrow effects?
Pessimistic vs optimistic explanatory style
those who believe that negative events result from internal, stable, and global factors; those who believe that negative events result from external, unstable, and specific factors
3 characteristics that comprise hardiness
personal control, commitment to activities and people in one’s life, appraisal of changes as challenges rather than threats to security
Sense of coherence
tendency of people to see their worlds as comprehensible, manageable, and meaningful
Health outcomes of resilience in old age
improved quality and longevity of life, independence in ADL, faster cardiovascular recovery, lower mortality risk, better mental health, greater happiness and well-being, lower rates of depression, higher life satisfaction, successful aging
Stress management
a program of behavioral and cognitive techniques that is designed to reduce psychological and physical reactions to stress
Progressive muscle relaxation
focusing your attention on specific muscle groups while alternately tightening and relaxing these muscles
Systematic desensitization
a classical conditioning procedure that counters learned fears by paring the feared object or situation with either pleasant or neutral events, which results in the calm response replacing the fear response
Biofeedback
technique in which an electromechanical device monitors the status of a person’s physiological processes, such as heart rate or muscle tension, and immediately reports that information back to the individual
Cognitive restructuring
a process by which stress-provoking thoughts or beliefs are replaced with more constructive or realistic ones that the reduce the person’s appraisal of threat or harm (e.g. through cognitive therapy)
Problem-solving training
clients learn a strategy for identifying, discovering, or inventing effective or adaptive ways to address problems in everyday life
3 phases of stress-inoculation training
learning about the nature of stress and how people react to it, acquiring behavioral and cognitive skills (e.g. relaxation and seeking social support), practicing coping skills with actual or imagined stressors
Ways to effectively manage stress
problem-solving (instead of denial and avoidance), disclosure (instead of rumination), positive reappraisal, acceptance, support-seeking (instead of withdrawal), interaction with animals, spending time in nature, meditation and mindfulness
Positive reappraisal
a highly adaptive strategy focused on deriving personally relevant positive meaning from a stressful event
Disclosure
an adaptive strategy wherein a person describes their feelings about a stressful or traumatic experience with the intent of resolution; similar to emotional expression, which is important for emotional regulation
Oxytocin
a hormone that’s released during many different types of human interaction and affiliation to encourage bonding, child-bearing, breast-feeding, sex, romance, hugging, etc.
Benefits of oxytocin
modulates HPA activity (lowers heart rate and bp) and increases social behavior; plays a role in attachment, pair-bonding, trust, social recognition (but also outgroup aggression), stress reduction
When is oxytocin released?
during/after childbirth, during breastfeeding, in response to low-intensity stimulation (e.g. touch), mutual smiling, sex, when socially isolated
Social support
a protective factor that buffers the impact of stress and environmental demands on the individual (e.g. comfort, caring, esteem, or help available to a person from others)
Received vs perceived support
actions performed by others; one’s sense or perception that support is available if needed
2 main theories that explain the effects of social support on health
buffering hypothesis and direct effects hypothesis
Stress buffering hypothesis
when social support is high, a person is protected against the negative impact of high stress; little or no buffering occurs in low-stress conditions
Direct effects hypothesis
social support benefits health and well-being regardless of the amount of stress people experience (same benefits under high and low stressors)
Stress prevention model
social support provides resources that help us avoid or minimize exposure to stressful events in the first place
6 types of social support
emotional/esteem, tangible/instrumental, informational support, companionship support, protective buffering, solicitousness
Which of the types of social support are problematic?
protective buffering and solicitousness
Emotional/esteem social support
feeling loved, cared for, valued, and respected by others; empathy, concern, positive regard
Tangible/instrumental social support
receiving material aid, assistance from others
Informational support
getting advice and information from others
Companionship support
availability of others to spend time with
Protective buffering
keeping information from someone in order to protect; avoiding the potential for negative interaction
Solicitousness
repeatedly expressing concern and providing help without request, which maintains their awareness to pain
Social support vs social networks
functional content and quality of social relationships; number of social relationships and degree of social integration
What effects has social media use been associated with?
frustration/anger, negative body image (especially for women), lower well-being and life satisfaction, increased narcissism, depression, anxiety, and psychological distress
Physiological benefits of interacting with friendly animals
reduced BP; improved cardiovascular health, immune system functioning, and pain management; lower cortisol output; reduced susceptibility to illness
Psychosocial benefits of interacting with friendly animals
improved mood and lower depression, reduced aggression and impact of stress (i.e. stress buffering), increased trustworthiness and trust for others
Limitations of HAI research
lack of standardized measures of variables (e.g. pet bonding); reliance on small sample sizes with short-term outcomes; degree of pet involvement and previous ownership not controlled; animals not typically well-described
Physical health benefits of greenspace
significant reductions in the activation of the sympathetic nervous system (heart rate, diastolic blood pressure, salivary cortisol); decrease in incidence of type 2 diabetes, all-cause and cardiovascular mortality
What causes the benefits of greenspace?
engagement in physical activity, social interaction, sun exposure, and the mitigation of harmful environmental exposure
Old friends hypothesis
increased exposure to microorganisms leads to the development of the immune system and regulation of inflammatory responses
Mental health benefits of greenspace
lower risk of mental illness, lower rumination and reduced depression, significant impact on positive affect, small but significant impact on negative affect
Nature-deficit disorder
argues that elements of our urbanized lifestyle combine to decrease or eliminate contact with nature for adults and children, resulting in negative outcomes for mental health and well-being (though not proposed by psychologists)
Biophilia hypothesis
we are naturally drawn to connect with other living things and this is when our brain works optimally
Benefits of massage therapy
reduced anxiety and depression, increased production of oxytocin (which decreases bp and stress hormone levels), reduced hypertension and asthma symptoms, bolstered immune function
Meditation
various practices and behaviors that induce a calm, peaceful, or relaxed state or increase our ability to create a “relaxation response” instead of a stress response
Physical health benefits of practicing meditation
alleviates stress, reduces blood pressure, and enhances immune function
Transcendental yoga
mentally repeating a mantra while sitting upright comfortably relaxed and with eyes closed to prevent distracting thoughts from occurring
Mindfulness
the intentionally focused awareness (without judgement) of one’s immediate inner and outer experiences (i.e. thoughts, emotions, sensations, surroundings); commonly integrated into meditation (mindfulness-based meditation) and combined with CBT
2 components of mindfulness
allows us to focus on immediate experience and not future-oriented worries or past-focused rumination; provides a way to experience events with curiosity, openness, and acceptance
Benefits of mindfulness-based stress reduction
moderately effective in reducing stress, depression, anxiety, and distress, and in improving quality of life
3 ways to practice mindfulness
(1) set aside some time to observe the moment as it is; (2) body scan or observe the sensations throughout your body; (3) mindfulness-based meditation
Mindfulness-based meditation
paying attention to breathing and relaxation while observing one’s thoughts and feelings
Shinrin Yoku (Forest Bathing)
a traditional Japanese practice of immersing oneself in nature that has numerous potential health benefits like improved immune function (increased killer cell activity) in adults after 3 days/2 nights
4 characteristics comprising the type A behavior pattern
competitive achievement orientation, time urgency, anger/hostility, vigorous vocal style
2 routes in which stress leads to illness
(1) directly or through changes produced by stress in the body’s physiology or (2) indirectly by affecting health through a person’s behavior
Metabolic syndrome
a set of risk factors including high levels of cholesterol and other blood fats, elevated bp, high levels of insulin in the blood, larger fat deposits in the abdomen
What does the vagal tone indicate?
the change in heart rate indicates the strength of someone’s parasympathetic stress-dampening system
Psychoneuroimmunology
field that focuses on the relationships between psychosocial processes and the activities of the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems
Psychophysiological disorders
physical symptoms or illnesses that result from the interplay of psychosocial and physiological processes
Hypnosis
an altered state of consciousness that is induced by special techniques of suggestion and leads to varying degrees of responsiveness to directions for changes in perception, memory, behavior
