Ch 3 Flashcards
2 components of stress
physical (involving direct material or bodily challenge) and psychological (involving how individuals perceive their life circumstances)
3 ways to examine stress components
seeing stress as (1) a stimulus or a change in the environment, (2) as a psychological or physiological response to stressors, (3) a process that includes stressors and strains
Stressors
physically or psychologically challenging events or circumstances
2 types of stressors
acute stressors (limited) and chronic stressors (prolonged or repeated)
Strain
the psychological and physiological response to a stressor
What important dimension does the process approach of stress add?
the relationship between the person and the environment, particularly transactions
Transactions
continuous interactions and adjustments between the person and the environment as we assess the existing demands, resources, and discrepancies in our own life or another’s (vicarious)
How does the process approach of stress differ from the stimulus and response approaches?
the person is seen as an active agent who can influence the impact of the stressor through behavioral, cognitive, and emotional strategies
Definition of stress
the circumstance in which transactions lead a person to perceive a discrepancy between the physical or psychological demands of a situation and the resources of one’s biological, psychological, or social systems
What do a demand, resource, or discrepancy have in common?
they may either be real or just believed to exist
What situation typically results in stress?
forming inaccurate perceptions of discrepancies between environmental demands and the actual resources
What typically happens when our resources are taxed?
it impacts all three of our systems (biopsychosocial)
Demands
the amount of our resources the stressor appears to require
When does a discrepancy exist?
when there is a mismatch between the demands of a situation the resources available in a person; either the demands exceed the resources or the resources are underutilized
Cognitive appraisal
a mental process that occurs in transactions that is divided into primary and secondary appraisal
Primary appraisal
people first assess the implications of the situation on our well-being, particularly whether a demand threatens our physical or psychological well-being
3 judgements that primary appraisal could yield
the circumstance is irrelevant, good or benign-positive, or stressful
Botulism
a life-threatening type of food poisoning
3 possible implications of a circumstance that was appraised as stressful
harm-loss, threat, and challenge
Harm-loss implication
the amount of damage that has already occurred (the impact of minor stressors may be exaggerated)
Threat implication
the expectation of future harm
Challenge implication
the opportunity to achieve growth, mastery, or profit by using more than routine resources to meet a demand
What kind of appraisal influences our response to stress experienced by others?
primary appraisal
Secondary appraisal
our assessment of the resources we have available for meeting the demands of the situation in terms of behavioral and cognitive control
Behavioral control
changing something in the environment to meet the demands of a situation
Cognitive control
changing one’s perception of control and ability to meet the demands of the situation
When are we especially aware of our secondary appraisals?
when we judge a situation as potentially stressful and try to determine if our resources are sufficient to meet the harm, challenge, or threat we face
2 types of factors affecting cogntive appraisal
situational factors (e.g. desirability, controllability, imminence, timing, ambiguity, life transitions) and personal factors (e.g. personality, self-esteem, motivation, perfectionism)
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
a psychiatric disorder resulting from exposure to an extremely severe stressor (i.e. a traumatic event), creating intense fear and horror
8 criterias for PTSD in DSM-5
(1) exposure to a stressor; (2) intrusion of trauma; (3) avoidance of trauma-related thoughts/feelings and other external reminders; (4) negative alterations in cognitions/mood; (5) alterations in arousal; (6) symptoms last for more than a month; (7) functional significance; (8) exclusion of other potential causes
4 ways of getting exposed to a stressor
direct exposure, witnessing in person, indirectly (e.g. learning about a friend/relative’s trauma), repeated or extreme indirect exposure to aversive details of an event
What is intrusion?
recurrent, involuntary, and intrusive memories (e.g. traumatic nightmares, flashbacks)
Symptoms of PTSD
alterations in arousal (difficulty concentrating or sleeping); frequently reliving the event (through intrusive memories, flashbacks, nightmares); avoiding people, places, and activities that remind a person of the event
2 types of factors that lead to stressful appraisals
those that relate to the person (i.e. personal factors) and those that relate to the situation
Personal factors
a person’s intellectual, motivational, and personality characteristics (e.g. high self-esteem may lead to interpreting an event as a challenge rather than a threat)
Perfectionism
the tendency to appraise minor issues as major problems; causes emotional distress and poses a serious threat to long-term health
What characteristics of events make them more likely to be appraised as stressful?
if they are demanding, imminent, life transitions, ambiguous, undesirable, uncontrollable (both behaviorally and cognitively), and deviate from timing in the social clock,
What 3 factors are assumed to influence the amount of stress experienced?
stressor frequency, intensity, and duration
Chronic stress
stress that occurs often or lasts a long time (e.g. many stressors occur simultaneously, rumination); increases negative emotions and likelihood of getting ill
Effects of chronic stress on the HPA axis
it becomes dysregulated leading to elevated cortisol, blood glucose and increased visceral fat, higher cholesterol and plaque build-up in arteries (atherosclerosis), impaired immune functioning and inflammation
2 ways that chronic stress can contribute to illness
directly via physiological effects on bodily systems OR indirectly via health behaviors for coping (e.g. substance abuse, poor sleep and exercise, unhealthy eating)
Rumination or dwelling
when thoughts about a trauma recur frequently over time
Reactivity
the physiological part of the strain or response to a stressor measured by comparison against a baseline or resting level of arousal; influenced by genetics
What causes the fight-or-flight response?
perception of danger causes the sympathetic nervous system to directly stimulate many organs (e.g. the heart) and the adrenal glands in the endocrine system to secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine
Epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
hormones/neurotransmitters (catecholamines) released by the adrenal glands that regulate heart rate, metabolism, respiration, oxygen to the brain and muscles
Physiological effects in the fight-or-flight response
rapid breathing for increased oxygen intake, increased blood pressure for enhanced blood flow to muscles, dilation of pupils for better vision, reproductive and digestive systems shut down to conserve resources
What does the general adaptation syndrome (Selye) propose?
the fight-or-flight response is only the first of a series of physiological reactions in a person while experiencing stress
What are the 3 stages of GAS?
alarm reaction, stage of resistance, stage of exhaustion
Alarm reaction stage of GAS
the fight-or-flight response wherein the body’s resources are mobilized (e.g. sympathetic nervous system, adrenal glands, HPA axis)
What happens when the HPA axis is activated?
the hypothalamus triggers the pituitary gland to secrete the hormone ACTH, which causes the adrenal gland to release cortisol into the bloodstream, enhancing mobilization
Cortisol or “the stress hormone”
increases blood pressure/glucose, enhances the brain’s use of glucose, suppresses nonessential systems, reduces inflammation, and assists return to homeostasis
Negative feedback loop
cortisol output automatically decreases over time
3 reasons why cortisol is difficult to study
(1) release is influenced by many factors like exercise, diet, and mood; (2) people have individual diurnal/daily cycles and average output; (3) effects are inconsistent across types of stressors
Stage of resistance in GAS
as the body tries to adapt to the stressor, physiological arousal declines but remains higher than normal, the HPA axis predominates, and the body replenishes the hormones released by the adrenal glands
What impairment may occur in the stage of resistance?
if the stressor doesn’t disappear or get resolved, a person’s body will adapt to high arousal and become less able to resist new stressors, making them vulnerable to diseases of adaptation
Examples of diseases of adaptation
ulcers, high blood pressure, asthma, and illnesses that result from impaired immune function
Stage of exhaustion in GAS
if severe or repeated stress persists and physiological arousal is prolonged, the immune system weakens, resistance becomes limited, and death may occur
Allostatic load
accumulated effects or wear and tear of one’s body adapting repeatedly to stressors over time (e.g. fluctuations in hormone levels, blood pressure, and immune function)
What does allostatic load do to the body?
it impairs the body’s ability to adapt to future stressors
4 factors that influence the overall amount of bodily activation or physiological stress
amount of exposure, magnitude of reactivity, rate of recovery, resource restoration (e.g. through sleep)
3 lines of evidence why the nonspecificity of GAS in terms of type of stressor is problematic
(1) some stressors appear to elicit a stronger emotional response than others e.g. amount of hormones secreted; (2) patterns of physiological arousal under stress depend on effort and distress; (3) it also depends on cognitive appraisal
2 factors that influence the pattern of physiological arousal under stress (Frankenhaueuser)
effort (one’s interest, striving, and determination) and distress (anxiety, uncertainty, boredom, dissatisfaction)
When does effort with distress occur?
during daily hassles or routine jobs; accompanied by an increase in catecholamine and cortisol excretion
When does effort without distress occur?
when there is active and successful coping, high job involvement, and a high degree of personal control; accompanied by an increase in catecholamine and decrease in cortisol secretion
When does distress without effort occur?
when one is feeling helpless, losing control, or giving up; accompanied by increased cortisol secretion
Limitation of Selye’s GAS
it assumes that all stressors produce the same physiological reactions and fails to consider the role of psychosocial factors
How is stress related to cognition in older adults?
higher levels of stress are associated with increased cognitive decline and memory problems
What is fear?
a common emotional reaction that involves psychological discomfort and physical arousal when we feel threatened
2 categories of fear
phobias and anxiety
Phobias
intense and irrational fears that are directly associated with specific events and situations
Anxiety
a vague feeling of uneasiness, apprehension, or anticipation of impending doom that often involves a relatively uncertain or unspecific threat
When does the feeling of depression count as a psychological disorder?
when the feeling is severe and prolonged (lasting for at least 2 weeks)
Symptoms of people diagnosed with depression
having a sad mood nearly every day, poor sleeping habits, atypical appetite, thoughts of suicide feelings of hopelessness, and low self-esteem; appearing listless with loss of energy, pleasure, concentration, and interest
3 main types of conflict
approach/approach, avoidance/avoidance, approach/avoidance
Approach/approach conflict
when the choice is between two appealing goals that are incompatible (e.g. choosing between eating healthy to lose weight or eating delicious junk food)
Avoidance/avoidance conflict
when the choice is between two undesirable situations; often difficult to resolve, leads to indecisiveness and delayal of making a decision
Approach/avoidance conflict
when a single goal or situation has both attractive and unattractive features (e.g. wanting to quit smoking cigarettes)
Benefits of disengagement from unattainable goals
lower perceived stress, fewer depressive symptoms, better regulated cortisol and self-reported health, less severe cold symptoms
Temperament
a person’s personality disposition present since birth; an important factor in the experience of parental stress
5 aspects of a person’s job that can increase their stress
the job’s physical environment (e.g. noise), perceived insufficient control, poor interpersonal relationships, perceived inaccurate recognition or advancement, job loss and insecurity
Stress spillover
when stress experienced at work is carried home by an individual (or vice versa) and results in greater stress
Stress crossover
when stress experienced at work and is carried home by an individual also affects someone else in the home
Polygraph
an device used to measure indexes of physiological arousal separately or altogether such as blood pressure, heart rate, respiration rate, galvanic skin response (skin conductance or sweat gland activity)
3 ways to measure stress
electric/mechanical equipment, biochemical analyses of blood, urine, or saliva samples, self-reporting on a scale (e.g. social readjustment rating scale, life experiences survey, PERI life events scale, unpleasant events schedule)
Life events
major happenings that can occur in a person’s life that require some psychological adjustment
Daily hassles
day-to-day unpleasant or potentially harmful events; ideally measured as they unfold and may be more strongly associated with health than life events
What health consequences are correlated with the severity or number of life events?
incidence of heart attacks, broken bones, diabetes, multiple sclerosis, tuberculosis, cold virus, pregnancy complications, decline in academic performance
2 classes of hormones secreted by the adrenal glands
corticosteroids (e.g. cortisol) and catecholamines (e.g. epinephrine and norepinephrine)
2 kinds of stress that differ in impact (Selye)
distress (harmfu) and eustress (beneficial or constructive)
Psychophysiological disorders
previously “psychosomatic;” physical symptoms or illnesses that result from the interplay of psychosocial and physiological processes; may be caused by or aggravated by stress
Examples of psychophysiological disorders
digestive system diseases (e.g. ulcers), asthma, recurrent headache (e.g. tension headaches, migraines), rheumatoid arthritis
Acute stress disorder
severe anxiety, dissociation, and other symptoms within one month after exposure to an extreme traumatic stressor (e.g. witnessing a death, a serious accident)
Posttraumatic growth
positive psychological changes following a highly challenging event or experience
Examples of posttraumatic growth
appreciation of life, renewed commitment to goals, greater sense of personal strength, greater intimacy in relationships, developing a warmer and more loving personality
Factors that may lead to PTSD rather than PTG
prior/childhood trauma, low openness to experience, low extraversion, maladaptive coping responses (e.g. peri-traumatic dissociation or psychological disconnect from what happened), perceived threat to life, low social support, being a woman, having low income and education
Primary predictors of exhibiting a freeze response
feelings of anxiety and panic during highly stressful events
How can PTSD, anxiety, and depression be adaptive to adversity?
depression may help prevent adversity by shifting attention; anxiety is a response to threat; PTSD involves avoidance of trauma-related stimuli and hypervigilance
Sources of stress within the individual
illness and disease, conflicting motivations (approach/avoidance), frustrated goals (e.g. failure to fulfill social motives like fear of rejection)
Sources of stress within one’s family/social network
new addition to the family; relationship strain, separation, divorce; family illness, disability, death
Sources of stress within the community/society
occupational and environmental stress
Occupational stress
stress originating in the workplace or associated with one’s employment (or lack thereof); e.g. police officers, nurses, ER doctors, truck drivers
3 factors in the demand-control-support model that predict stress and well-being on the job
perceived demand, perceived control, and perceived social support
Environmental stress
aversive, primarily uncontrollable, sometimes unpredictable environmental stimuli that varies in duration and frequency (e.g. ambient stressors like noise, crowding, air pollution or cataclysmic events like natural or human-caused disasters)
Flow
an optimal state of arousal or complete absorption in work, play, or creativity that arises spontaneously while engrossed
Effects of flow
intense concentration; loss of self-awareness, time awareness, environmental awareness; feeling perfectly challenged (neither bored nor overwhelmed)
Benefits of acute/moderate stress
stimulation of immune activity and cell growth in the brain’s learning centers, improved accuracy in cognitive tasks, reinforcement of good habits (but also bad)
