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BIO 202 - Principles of Zoology > ch. 38 > Flashcards

ch. 38 Flashcards

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1
Q

what is abduction?

A

when a bone moves away from the midline of the body

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2
Q

What is acetylcholinesterase(AchE)? what does it do?

A

an enzyme that breaks down ACh into acetyl and choline

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3
Q

what is actin?

A

globular contractile protein

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4
Q

what do myosin and actin work together to produce?

A

muscle contractions

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5
Q

what is adduction?

A

movement of the limbs inward after abduction

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6
Q

what is amphiarthorosis? what does it include?

A

a joint that allows slight movement; includes syndesmoses and symphyses

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7
Q

when is angular movement produced?

A

when the angle between the bones of a joint change

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8
Q

what is an appendicular skeleton composed of?

A

it is composed of the bones of the upper limbs and the lower limbs

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9
Q

what is the function of the bones of the upper limbs in an appendicular skeleton?

A

they function to grasp and manipulate objects

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10
Q

what do the bones of the upper limbs permit in an appendicular skeleton?

A

they permit locomotion

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11
Q

what happens during appositional growth?

A

an increase in the diameter of bones by the addition of bone tissue at the surface of the bones

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12
Q

what is an articulation?

A

any place where two bones are joined

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13
Q

what does an auditory ossicle do?

A

transducers sounds from the air into vibrations in the fluid-filled cochlea

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14
Q

what is a hydrostatic skeleton?

A

skeleton that consists of aqueous fluid held under pressure in a closed body compartment (soft-bodied, fluid filled cavity)

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15
Q

what terrestrial animals have hydrostatic skeletons?

A

earthworms and slugs

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16
Q

what aquatic animals have hydrostatic skeletons?

A

jellyfish and squid

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17
Q

what is the advantage of a hydrostatic skeleton?

A

it is flexible

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18
Q

what are the disadvantages of a hydrostatic skeleton?

A

drying and squishy

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19
Q

what is an exoskeleton?

A

a secreted cellular product external skeleton that consists of a hard encasement on the surface of an organism (ridged hard case and muscles attach internally)

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20
Q

what animals have exoskeletons? what makes up the exoskeleton?

A

arthropods; chitin

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21
Q

what are the advantages of an exoskeleton?

A

can resist desiccation and good for protection

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22
Q

what are the disadvantages of an exoskeleton?

A

must molt in order to grow, weighs more, and are vulnerable to predation

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23
Q

what animals have endoskeletons?

A

echinoderms and vertebrates

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24
Q

what makes up a vertebrate’s endoskeleton?

A

calcium phosphate (Ca3[PO4]2)

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25
Q

what makes up a echinoderm’s endoskeleton?

A

calcium carbonate (CaCO3)

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26
Q

what is an endoskeleton?

A

skeleton of living cells that produces a hard, mineralized tissue located within the soft tissue of organisms

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27
Q

what is the purpose of cartilage in an endoskeleton?

A

joint movement

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28
Q

what is the purpose of ligaments in an endoskeleton?

A

joint stability

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29
Q

what is the purpose of tendons in an endoskeleton?

A

muscle attachment

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30
Q

what are the four functions of an endoskeleton?

A
  1. protection’
  2. muscle attachment
  3. living tissue
  4. mineral storage
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31
Q

what minerals does an exoskeleton store?

A

calcium and phosphate

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32
Q

what does the endoskeleton protect?

A

organs (heart/lungs)

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33
Q

what is the function of the living tissue of an endoskeleton?

A

to produce red/white blood cells and remodel from stress

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34
Q

What are the bones of the central axis?

A
  • skull (w/ cranial bones) (including mandible and maxilla)
  • sternum
  • rib cage
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35
Q

what are the functions of the vertebral column (aka spine)?

A

surrounds and protects the spinal cord, supports the head, and acts as an attachment point for ribs and muscles of the back and neck

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36
Q

how many cervical vertebrae are there in the vertebral column?

A

7

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37
Q

how many thoracic vertebrae are there in the vertebral column?

A

12

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38
Q

how many sacral vertebrae are there in the vertebral column?

A

5 fused

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39
Q

how many coccyx vertebrae are there in the vertebral column?

A

4 fused

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40
Q

what types of vertebrae in the vertebral column are fused?

A

sacral and coccyx

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41
Q

what are the bones of the human limbs?

A

the pectoral girdle and the pelvic girdle

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42
Q

what is the function of the pectoral girdle?

A

attaches the upper limbs to the body

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43
Q

what is the function of the pelvic girdle?

A

attaches the lower limbs to the body

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44
Q

what bones make up the pectoral girdle?

A

scapula and clavicle

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45
Q

what bones make up the pelvic girdle?

A

ilium, ischium, and pubis

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46
Q

what bones make up the forelimb?

A

humerus, ulna, radius, carpels, metacarpals, and phalanges

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47
Q

what bones make up the hindlimb?

A

femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges

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48
Q

when is a bone considered a “long bone”?

A

when the length is greater than the width

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49
Q

what is the structure of a long bone?

A

a shaft (diaphysis) with two ends (epiphyses)

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50
Q

what characterizes short bones?

A

they are cuboidal and their length is equal to width

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51
Q

examples of long bones?

A

humerus and femur

52
Q

examples of short bones?

A

carpels and tarsals

53
Q

what are characteristics of flat bones?

A
  • thin and broad
  • used for organ protection
54
Q

what are some examples of flat bones?

A

sternum and ribs

55
Q

what is a characteristic of irregular bones?

A

complex shapes

56
Q

what are examples of irregular bones?

A

vertebrae and hip bones

57
Q

what are characteristics of sesamoid bones?

A

small and flat

58
Q

what are characteristics of sutural bones?

A

irregular, small, and flat

59
Q

what is an example of a sesamoid bone?

A

patellae

60
Q

what are examples of sutural bones?

A

bones of the skull

61
Q

what are bones?

A

organs; collections of tissue

62
Q

what does a compact bone form?

A

forms the hard external layer of all bones

63
Q

what is another name for contact bone?

A

cortical bone

64
Q

what is another name for spongy bone?

A

cancellous bone

65
Q

what does spongy bone lack?

A

osteons

66
Q

what cells does spongy bone form?

A

blood cells

67
Q

what surrounds the medullary cavity?

A

compact bone

68
Q

what is spongy bone?

A

is forms the inner layer of all bones

69
Q

what are trabeculae?

A

lamellae that are arranged as rods or plates

70
Q

what do osteoblasts secrete? for what?

A

they secrete the matrix for bone formation

71
Q

what do osteoclasts do?

A

breakdown bone matrix

72
Q

what are osteoclasts?

A

large bone cells with up to 50 nuclei (multinucleate cells derived from WBCs), responsible for bone remodeling

73
Q

what activates osteoclasts?

A

PTH (parathyroid hormone)

74
Q

what is an osteoblast?

A

bone cell responsible for bone formation

75
Q

what are osteocytes?

A

mature bone cells and the main cell in bone tissue; trapped osteoblasts; living bone cells

76
Q

what are lacunae?

A

tight spaces in the bones that house osteoblasts (space in cartilage and bone that contains living cells)

77
Q

what are canaliculi?

A

canals connecting lacunae that allow osteocytes to communicate (microchannel that connects the lacunae and aids diffusion between cells)

78
Q

what is the haversian canal?

A

central canal in bones that contains the bone’s blood vessels and nerve fibers (contains blood vessels for osteon

79
Q

what is ossification?

A

(aka osteogenesis) process of bone formation by osteoblasts (not calcification!)

80
Q

what is intramembranous ossification?

A

process of bone development from fibrous membranes

81
Q

where does intramembranous ossification start and end?

A

start: mesenchymal cells
end: flat bones, mandible

82
Q

what is endochondral ossification?

A

process of bone development from hyaline cartilage

83
Q

where does endochondral ossification start and end?

A

start: chondrocytes
end: all other bones

84
Q

how is a growth hormone disorder treated?

A

with injections

85
Q

what is the epiphyseal plate (aka growth plate)?

A

region between the diaphysis and epiphysis that is responsible for the lengthwise growth of long bones

86
Q

what does it mean when the growth plate ossifies?

A

growth stops

87
Q

what does a chronic low calcium deficiency mean for the bones?

A

amt of bone calcium decreases while the risk of fractures increases

88
Q

what do bones do when exposed to repeated stress?

A

they remodel, thickening to prevent fractures

89
Q

what is a fibrous joint?

A

joint held together by fibrous connective tissue; has no cavity, space, or movement

90
Q

what is an example of a fibrous joint?

A

sutures of the skull

91
Q

what are syndesmoses joints?

A

joint in which the bones are connected by a band of connective tissue, allowing for more movement than in a suture (no cavity or space, some movement, amt of movement = length of CT)

92
Q

what are examples of syndesmoses joints?

A

gomphoses and teeth; tibia and fibia to ankle

93
Q

what is a cartilaginous joint?

A

joint in which the bones are connected by cartilage (no cavity or space; very little movement)

94
Q

what are synchondroses?

A

bones joined by hyaline cartilage; found in the epiphyseal plates of growing bones in children

95
Q

what are symphyses?

A

hyaline cartilage covers the end of the bone, but the connection between bones occurs through fibrocartilage; symphyses are found at the joints between vertebrae

96
Q

what are synovial joints?

A

only joint that has a space between the adjoining bones; fluid lubricates joint; ends covered with hyaline

97
Q

what are the three types of functional joints?

A
  • synarthrosis (immovable)
  • amphiarthroses (slight movement)
  • diathroses (free movement)
98
Q

what are the four movement types of functional joints?

A
  • gliding
  • angular
  • rotational
  • special
99
Q

what kind of joint is the atlas-axis (where skull connects to spine)?

A

pivot

100
Q

what kind of joint is the elbow?

A

hinge

101
Q

what kind of joint is between the carpals and metacarpals?

A

saddle

102
Q

what kind of joint is the ankle?

A

plane

103
Q

what kind of joint is between the radius and carpal bones of the wrist?

A

candyloid

104
Q

what kind of joint is the hip?

A

ball and socket

105
Q

what are the three types of muscle?

A

skeletal, cardiac, and smooth

106
Q

what is skeletal muscle tissue?

A

forms skeletal muscles, which attach to bones and control locomotion and any movement that can be consciously controlled

107
Q

what are characteristics of skeletal muscle?

A

voluntary, striated, and multinucleated

108
Q

what are characteristics of cardiac muscle?

A

self initiating, striated, uninucleate, and only found in the heart

109
Q

what are some characteristics of smooth muscle?

A

involuntary and makes up the walls of organs

110
Q

what is a sarcomere?

A

the smallest working subunit of muscular contraction; functional unit of skeletal muscle

111
Q

what is the process of a neuromuscular synapse?

A
  1. acetylcholine released from the axon terminal binds to receptors on the sarcolemma
  2. an action potential is generated and travels down the T tubule
  3. CA2+ is released from the sarcophagi cell reticulum in response to change in voltage
  4. CA2+ binds troponin; cross bridges form between actin and myosin
  5. acetylcholinesterase removes acetylcholine from the synaptic cleft
  6. CA2+ is transported back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum
  7. tropomyosin binds active sites on actin causing the cross-bridge to detach
112
Q

what is the purpose of tropomyosin?

A

acts to block myosin binding sites on actin molecules, preventing cross-bridge formation and preventing contraction until a muscle receives a neuron signal (found on actin; blocks binding sites)

113
Q

what is the function of troponin?

A

binds to tropomyosin and helps to position it on the actin molecule, and also binds calcium ions (found on actin and TPM; holds actin and TPM)

114
Q

what does low calcium do to the regulation of muscle contractions?

A

TPM inhibits cross-bridge, blocks binding site

115
Q

what does high calcium do to the regulation of muscle contractions?

A

TPN changes confirmation, exposes binding sites

116
Q

what is the sliding filament theory?

A

that the sliding of microfilaments contracts sarcomeres

117
Q

what is happening in photo 1?

A
  1. CA2+ is released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
  2. CA2+ in the sarcoplasm binds to troponin and exposes myosin-binding sites on the actin filaments
118
Q

what is happening in image 2?

A

myosin heads bind to actin; release of Pi initiates power stroke

119
Q

what is happening in image 3?

A

in the power stroke, the myosin head changes conformation; filaments slide past one another (rigor mortis)

120
Q

what is happening at image 4?

A

ADP is released at the end of the power stroke; ATP binds to myosin causing it to release actin

121
Q

what is happening at image 5?

A

hydrolysis of ATP returns the myosin head to its “cocked” position

122
Q

what is happening at 6?

A

if Ca2+ is returned to the sarcoplasmic reticulum, the muscle relaxes

123
Q

what is happening at 7?

A

if Ca2+ remains available, the cycle repeats and muscle contraction continues

124
Q

what ion is important for releasing neurotransmitters and/or causing muscular contraction?

A

Ca2+

125
Q

what bone was produced as a result of intramembranous ossification?

A

mandible

126
Q

_____ secrete the calcium phosphate that secretes the inorganic hydroxyapatite of bone, while _____ chemically breakdown bone to release calcium and phosphate into the blood.

A

osteoblasts; osteoclasts

BIO 202 - Principles of Zoology (12 decks)

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