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Intro Classes > Ch 2 Cell Cycle and Replication > Flashcards

Ch 2 Cell Cycle and Replication Flashcards

1
Q

zygote

A

fertilized egg

restores the dipoloid number of chromosomes from the haploid gametes

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2
Q

differentiation

A

the specrialization of cells

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3
Q

stem cells

A

undifferentiated cells

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4
Q

the cell cycle

A

the period of time it takes for a cell to complete one cell division

may last a few hours in certain continuously dividing cells; may last years in stable, terminally differentiated cells

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5
Q

phases of the cell cycle

A

gap phase 1 (G1)

synthesis phase (S)

gap phase 2 (G2)

mitosis phase (M)

Some cells enter G0 phase, a prolonged non-dividing phase

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6
Q

terminally differentiated cells

A

cells of mature tissues which have fully differentiated, some of which (such as the neurones of the nervous system) lose the ability to undergo mitosis

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7
Q

mitosis

A

cell division of somatic cells which results in two diploid daughter cells

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8
Q

phases of mitosis

A

prophase

prometaphase

metaphase

anaphase

telophase

followed by cytokinesis (a separate phase of somatic cell division which is not required, thus resulting in binucleate or multinucleate cells)

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9
Q

meiosis

A

division of germ cells to produce gametes

results in four haploid cells—four spermatogonia in males and one oogonium and three polar bodies in females

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10
Q

apoptosis

A

controlled cell death to remove unnecessary or potentially harmful cells which requires the expenditure of energy

a highly controlled and ordered mechanism that removes cells in a way that causes minimal disruption to the surrounding tissue

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11
Q

facultative dividers

A

cells that do not normally divide but retain the capacity to undergo mitosis should the need arise

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12
Q

M phase

A

mitotic phase; phase during which the cell undergoes mitosis

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13
Q

interphase

A

non-dividing phase during which most of the life cycle of the cell occupies

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14
Q

S phase

A

synthesis phase; a discrete period during interphase when nuclear DNA is replicated

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15
Q

three phases of interphase

A

first gap (G1 phase)

synthesis phase (S phase)

second gap (G2 phase)

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16
Q

G1 phase

A

first gap phase; between the end of the M phase and the beginning of the S phase

during this phase, cells differentiate and perform their specialized functions as part of the whole tissue

usually much longer than the other phases of the cell cycle

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17
Q

G2 phase

A

second gap phase; the interval between the end of the S phase and the beginning of the M phase

during this period, cells prepare for mitotic division

relatively short phase

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18
Q

G0 phase

A

state of continuous differentiated function designated which occurs in terminally differentiated cells that have left the cell cycle after the M phase

still retain the capacity to re-enter the cell cycle when suitably stimulated

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19
Q

binucleate cells

A

cells that are in a protracted G2 phase in which they perform their normal differentiated functions despite the presence of a duplicated complement of DNA

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20
Q

metaphase checkpoint

A

prevents progression to anaphase from metaphase before all the chromosomes are properly connected to the mitotic spindle and lined up at the cell equator

prevents unequal distribution of the chromosomes to the two daughter cells

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21
Q

somatic cells

A

all body cells except for the germ cells

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22
Q

cytokinesis

A

the division/cleavage of a post-mitosis cell into genetically identical daughter cells by cytoplasmic division

the plasma membrane around the spindle equator becomes indented to form a the cleavage furrow, which progressively constricts the cell until it is cleaved into two daughter cells

may, in some situations, result in the formation of two daughter cells with grossly unequal amounts of cytoplasm or cytoplasmic organelles

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23
Q

totipotent

A

able to differentiate into any other cell type

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24
Q

multipotent

A

able to produce cells of several lineages

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25
Q

unipotent

A

producing only a single cell type

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26
Q

haematopoietic

A

an immature cell that can develop into all types of blood cells, including white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets

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27
Q

genome

A

the same fixed complement of DNA contained within the nuclei of all somatic cells within an individual

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28
Q

chromosomes

A

the arrangement of DNA within cells, with each species having a set number

humans have 46 chromosomes (22 homologous pairs and 2 sex chromosomes)

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29
Q

diploid number

A

the total number of chromosomes within cells (46 in humans), and often abbreviated as 2n ( n = number of chromosomes in a haploid cell)

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30
Q

autosome

A

any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome

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31
Q

sex chromosomes

A

two chromosomes, either XX in the female or XY in the male; differentiated from autosomes

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32
Q

sister chromatids

A

the identical chromosomes created during S phase, when each chromosome is duplicated

remain attached to original chromosome twin at the centromere

33
Q

centromere

A

the point at which sister chromatids attach to their identical counterpart

34
Q

histone proteins

A

binds to DNA into chromosomes and holds the chromosomes in supercoiled and folded conformations

replicated during S phase so that the sister chromatids will have their own complement of histones

35
Q

kinetochore

A

a DNA and protein structure on each duplicated chromosome, located at the centromere, which provides attachment for the microtubules of the cell spindle to the centromeres during cell division and seems also to control the progression of mitosis

36
Q

cell spindle

A

microtubules which attach to kinetochores during cell division

37
Q

karyotyping

A

Examination of the chromosomes of dividing cells, which can give diagnostic information about the chromosomal complement of an individual or of a malignant tumour

38
Q

mitotic apparatus

A

a spindle of longitudinally arranged microtubules extending between a pair of centrioles at each pole of the dividing cell and is required for cell division

39
Q

prophase

A

the first stage of mitosis which begins the moment when the chromosomes (already duplicated during the preceding S phase) first become visible within the nucleus

the chromosomes become increasingly condensed and shortened and the nucleolus disappears

the microfilaments and microtubules of the cytoskeleton disaggregate into their protein subunits

the centrosome has already divided during the preceding interphase and, in prophase, the two pairs of centrioles migrate towards opposite poles of the cell while simultaneously a spindle of microtubules is formed between them

40
Q

interpolar microtubules

A

a spindle of microtubules that is formed between the two pairs of centrioles which migrate towards opposite poles of the cell during prophase

41
Q

prometaphase

A

dissolution of the nuclear envelope marks the beginning of prometaphase

the mitotic spindle then moves into the nuclear area and each duplicated chromosome becomes attached at the kinetochore to another group of microtubules of the mitotic spindle

ther microtubules attach the chromosome arms to the spindle.

42
Q

metaphase

A

begins after prometaphase, during which chromosomes are dragged to the plane of the spindle equator (metaphase plate)

the kinetochores controls entry of the cell into anaphase so that the process of mitosis does not progress until all chromatid pairs are aligned at the cell equator (metaphase checkpoint); prevents the formation of daughter cells with unequal numbers of chromosomes.

43
Q

metaphase/equatorial plate

A

the spindle equator that the chromosomes line up along during metaphase just before anaphase

44
Q

anaphase

A

begins after the metaphase checkpoint and is marked by the splitting of the centromeres

the mitotic spindle becomes lengthened by the action of the motor protein kinesin 5 on the interpolar microtubules

meanwhile, astral microtubules shorten and the centrioles are thus pulled apart, drawing the chromatids of each duplicated chromosome to opposite ends of the cell

should result in exact division of the duplicated genetic material and by the end of anaphase, two groups of identical chromosomes are clustered at opposite poles of the cell

45
Q

astral microtubules

A

join the centrosome to the cell cortex (the area underlying the plasma membrane)

46
Q

telophase

A

during this final phase of mitosis, the chromosomes begin to uncoil and to regain their interphase conformation

the nuclear envelope reassembles and nucleoli again become apparent

47
Q

cleavage furrow

A

a circumferential furrow around the cell that progressively constricts the cell until it is cleaved into two daughter cells, resulting in cytokinesis

48
Q

cytogenetic abnormalities

A

structural and numerical chromosomal abnormalities

49
Q

nondisjunction

A

failure of the homologous chromosome pairs to separate during the first meiotic division, can result in trisomies

50
Q

anaphase lag

A

failure of the two sister chromatids to separate during the second meiotic division, may result in trisomies

51
Q

trisomy

A

having three of one type of chromosome

E.g. trisomy 21 (Down syndrom), trisomy 18 (Edward syndrome), trisomy 13 (Patau syndrome)

52
Q

gametes

A

haploid reproductive cells

53
Q

gametogenesis

A

another name for meiotic cell division

54
Q

haploid number

A

having one chromosome from each homologous pair (23 in humans)

often abbreviated n

55
Q

crossing over

A

mixes up the paternally and maternally derived alleles (alternative forms of the same gene) by “crossing over” of the chromatids

the haploid gamete ends up with only one of each chromosome pair, but each individual chromosome includes alleles from each parent

occurs in meiosis only

56
Q

meiotic S phase

A

the chromosomes are duplicated as in the mitotic S phase, and this step is required for meiosis to proceed

57
Q

chiasma formation

A

the mechanism of crossing over of the chromatids

58
Q

meiotic prophase I

A

occurs after meiotic S phase and it is when crossing over occurs during meiosis

59
Q

meiotic metaphase I

A

the first metaphase during meiosis, which occurs very similarly to mitotic metaphase (chromosomes line up on the metaphase plate)

60
Q

meiotic anaphase I

A

the first anaphase during meiosis, which occurs very similarly to mitotic anaphase except that the homologous pairs of chromosomes split (instead of the chromatids)

61
Q

meiotic metaphase II

A

the second meiotic division involves splitting of the chromatids by pulling apart the centromeres

62
Q

meiotic anaphase II

A

stage of meiosis where the chromatids migrate to opposite poles of the spindle

63
Q

spermatozoon

A

the mature form of the four haploid gametes after they undergo morphological development in males

64
Q

ovum

A

the gamete, which had gained almost all the cytoplasm from the mother cell d/t unequal distribution of the cytoplasm, after it matures further

65
Q

polar bodies

A

the gametes, which had gained almost none of the cytoplasm from the mother cell d/t unequal distribution of the cytoplasm, after they further degenerate

66
Q

spermatogonia

A

the primitive germ cells of the male, which are present only in small numbers in the male gonads before sexual maturity

after sexual maturity, spermatogonia multiply continuously by mitosis to provide a supply of cells which then undergo meiosis to form male gametes

67
Q

oogonia

A

the germ cells of the female, which multiply by mitosis only during early fetal development, thereby producing a fixed complement of cells with the potential to undergo gametogenesis

68
Q

mitochondria fate during reproduction

A

because the spermatozoa shed their mitochondria at the time of fertilisation, only maternal mitochondrial genes are passed on to the offspring

69
Q

necrosis

A

a mode of cell and tissue death that occurs only in pathological conditions; characterised by the inability of cells to produce the energy (ATP) required to maintain homeostasis.

E.g. myocardial infarction

70
Q

caspase cascade

A

the activated enzymes of this mechanism cleave cellular proteins, such as the lamins of the nucleus, and activate additional enzymes, such as DNAase, to cleave DNA.

71
Q

clonal deletion

A

the process when developing T lymphocytes which are capable of reacting to normal body components become triggered to self-destruct in the thymus

72
Q

corpus albicans

A

a fibrotic scar which occurs when the ovum is not fertilized, so the corpus luteum involutes (a process that involves progressive death of its constituent cells)

73
Q

caspases

A

a set of enzymes found in the inactive form in all cells, and when it is activated, by cleaving off a short peptide sequence, it is then able to activate the next enzyme in the series and so on, leading to a caspase cascade (amplification effect)

74
Q

enzyme cascade

A

when the first enzyme in a series is activated, it is then able to activate the next enzyme in the series, which in turn activate other enzymes

greatly amplifies reactions

75
Q

coagulation cascade

A

an example of an enzyme cascade; the blood clotting mechanism

76
Q

karyorrhexis

A

the breaking of nuclear material into fragments during apoptosis

77
Q

karyolysis

A

the break-up of the entire cell into membrane-bound frangments during apoptosis

78
Q

apoptotic bodies

A

cell fragments that contain nuclear material after karyolysis

may be phagocytosed by adjacent cells or by tissue macrophages

79
Q

abnormal mitotic figures

A

a visually obvious example of the many genetic abnormalities that are found in cancer cells which are not seen in normal tissue (can be a feature of premalignant conditions as well)

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