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Intro Classes > Ch 1 Cell Structure and Function > Flashcards

Ch 1 Cell Structure and Function Flashcards

1
Q

histology

A

the study of normal cells and tissues, mainly using microscopes

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2
Q

cell

A

the functional unit of all living organisms

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3
Q

eukaryote

A

organisms whose cells consist of cytoplasm and a defined nucleus bounded by a nuclear membrane

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4
Q

prokaryote

A

cells who do not have a membrane-bound nucleus

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5
Q

differentiation

A

process by which cells adopt a specialised structure and function

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6
Q

plasma membrane

A

an external lipid membrane that binds cells and which serves as a dynamic interface with the external environment

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7
Q

plasma membrane functions

A

transfer of nutrients and metabolites

attachment of the cell to adjacent cells and extracellular matrix

communication with the external environment

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8
Q

nucleus

A

the largest organelle, its substance is bounded by a membrane system called the nuclear envelope or membrane and contains the genetic material of the cell (DNA)

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9
Q

nuclear membrane/envelope

A

the membrane system that encloses the nucleus and consists of two lipid bilayers with the intermembranous or perinuclear space between.

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10
Q

endoplasmic reticulum

A

an extensive system of flattened membrane-bound tubules, saccules, and flattened cisterns (sacs)

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11
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

AKA Golgi complex or sack

a discrete system of membrane-bound saccules that is typically located close to the nucleus

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12
Q

mitochondria

A

large, elongated organelles which have a smooth outer membrane and a convoluted inner membrane system that degrades pyruvic acid in the presence of oxygen to carbon dioxide and water; this process yields a large quantity of ATP

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13
Q

cytosol

A

the gel-like medium in which the cytoplasmic organelles are suspended

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14
Q

cytoskeleton

A

a network of minute tubules and filaments within the cytosol which provides structural support for the cell and its organelles, as well as providing a mechanism for the transfer of materials within the cell and movement of the cell itself

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15
Q

phospholipid

A

molecule that makes up the lipid bilayers and are amphoteric

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16
Q

amphoteric

A

consist of a polar head and a non-polar tail

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17
Q

sphingomyelin

A

an important and plentiful phospholipid in cell membranes

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18
Q

the lipid structure of membranes

A

not homogeneous
certain lipids, glycolipids and proteins may be transiently enriched to form a membrane or lipid ‘raft’ which is involved in various membrane functions, including the formation of caveolac

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19
Q

cholesterol

A

molecules present in the bilayer in an almost 1 : 1 ratio with phospholipids; amphiphilic

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20
Q

cholesterol function

A

Cholesterol has a kinked conformation, thus preventing overly dense packing of the phospholipid tails and also filling the gaps between the ‘kinks’ of the unsaturated fatty acid tails.

This helps cholesterol molecules stabilize and regulate the fluidity of the phospholipid bilayer.

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21
Q

intrinsic proteins

A

Also called integral proteins, these protein molecules are embedded within the lipid bilayer

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22
Q

transmembrane proteins

A

these proteins span the entire thickness of the membrane to be exposed to each surface,

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23
Q

peripheral membrane proteins

A

proteins attached to the inner or outer membrane leaflet by weak non-covalent bonds to other proteins or lipids

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24
Q

membrane proteins functions

A

cell-cell adhesion

cell-matrix adhesion

intercellular signaling

the formation of transmembrane channels for the transport of materials into and out of the cell

[Them MP’s didn’t do nothing for us common folk govnur, they just SAT (signaling, adhesion,transportation) on their rears, they did]

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25
Q

aquaporin

A

transmembrane protein which transports water molecules across the cell membrane

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26
Q

glycolipids

A

membrane lipids conjugated with short chains of polysaccharide

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27
Q

glycoproteins

A

membrane proteins conjugated with short chains of polysaccharide

E.g. surface mucins

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28
Q

glycocalyx

A

an outer coating of glycoproteins (surface mucins) and glycolipids which project from the surface of the bilayer, varying in thickness in different cell types

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29
Q

glycocalyx function

A

cell recognition phenomena

the formation of intercellular adhesions

the adsorption of molecules to the cell surface

provides mechanical and chemical protection for the plasma membrane

[“Coats” protect, are recognizable, adheres to your body, and adsorbs rain]

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30
Q

chromosome

A

contains a number of genes joined end to end, with each gene encoding the structure of a single protein according to the sequence of nucleotides along the length of the gene

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31
Q

nucleoplasm

A

the substance of the nucleus

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32
Q

nucleoprotein

A

two major types:
low molecular weight, positively charged histone proteins, & non-histone proteins

found in the nucleus after being synthesized in the cytoplasm

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33
Q

histone proteins

A

form a protein core around which the chromosome is coiled to form nucleosomes and control the uncoiling and expression of the genes encoded by the DNA strand.

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34
Q

nucelosomes

A

the coiled unit of chromosomes around a histone core

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35
Q

non-histone proteins

A

a type of nucleoprotein and includes all the enzymes for the synthesis of DNA and RNA and other regulatory proteins

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36
Q

heterochromatin

A

tightly coiled, inactive chromatin found in irregular clumps, often around the periphery of the nucleus

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37
Q

Barr body

A

the inactivated X-chromosome in females which may form a small discrete mass within the nucleus

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38
Q

euchromatin

A

the part of the DNA that is active in RNA synthesis; uncoiled heterochromatin

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39
Q

chromosome territories

A

particular areas of the nucleus where individual chromosomes tend to clump

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40
Q

intermembranous/perinuclear space

A

the area between the two lipid bilayers of the nuclear envelope, and is continuous with the lumen of the ER

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41
Q

outer lipid bilayer of the nuclear envelope

A

continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum ER and has ribosomes R on its cytoplasmic face

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42
Q

nuclear lamina

A

an electron-dense layer of intermediate filaments (lamins) found on the inner aspect of the inner nuclear membrane which link inner membrane proteins and heterochromatin

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43
Q

lamins

A

intermediate filaments that make up the nuclear lamina and link inner membrane proteins and heterochromatin

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44
Q

nuclear pores

A

areas in the nuclear envelope and at the pores’ margins, the inner and outer membranes become continuous

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45
Q

nuclear pore complex

A

an elaborate cylindrical structure consisting of approximately 30 proteins (nucleoporins) forming a central pore approximately 125 nm in diameter

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46
Q

nucleoporins

A

proteins that comprise the cylindrical structure of nuclear pore complexes, creating a pore approximately 125 nm in diameter

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47
Q

nuclear pores functions

A

permit and regulate the exchange of metabolites, macromolecules, and ribosomal subunits between the nucleus and cytoplasm

ions and small molecules diffuse freely through, but larger molecules (e.g. mRNA moving nucleus -> cytoplasm, histones moving cytoplasm -> nucleus) have to dock to the nuclear pore complex via a targeting sequence and are transported by an energy-dependent process

may also hold together the two lipid bilayers of the nuclear envelope

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48
Q

nucleolus

A

dense structure within the nucleus which is the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis and ribosome assembly.

Also processes transfer RNA (tRNA)

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49
Q

nucleolar organiser regions (NORs)

A

where the ribosomal genes are found across five specific chromosomes

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50
Q

nucleoli appearance commonalities

A

most contain dense fibrillar components (sites of rRNA synthesis) and paler fibrillar centers surrounded by the granular component (ribosome assembly site)

[nuclei = plural of nucleus; nucle”ol”i = plural of nucle”ol”us]

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51
Q

ribosome

A

protein factory of the cell

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52
Q

pre-messenger RNA

A

pre-mRNA

a complementary copy of the DNA template (the gene) of a particular protein

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53
Q

transcription

A

the process of copying the DNA template (the gene) of a particular protein to form a complementary pre-messenger RNA ( pre-mRNA ) copy

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54
Q

introns

A

non-coding regions of the mRNA strand which is excised during the post-transcriptional processing of the mRNA

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55
Q

small nuclear RNAs

A

snRNA

controls the post-transcriptional step of intron excision, and forms the spliceosome with various other proteins

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56
Q

spliceosome

A

a complex of various proteins including snRNA which excises introns from mRNA during post-transcriptional processing

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57
Q

messenger RNA

A

mRNA

the post-transcriptional processing result of pre-mRNA after intron excision

passes from the nucleus to the cytoplasm through a nuclear pore complex and then binds to ribosomes

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58
Q

ribosomes

A

organelles that synthesise proteins using the mRNA strand as a template to determine the specific amino acid sequence of the protein

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59
Q

translation

A

the act of using the mRNA strand as a template to synthesize the specific amino acid sequence of the protein

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60
Q

ribosomal RNA

A

rRNA

molecules that make up a strand of RNA which in turn makes up one the two ribosomal subunits

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61
Q

transfer RNA

A

tRNA

molecules which add amino acids sequentially to a growing peptide chain by reading the mRNA found in a ribosome

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62
Q

ribozymes

A

RNA molecules found in ribosomes that catalyze peptide bond formation between amino acids

63
Q

polyribosomes/polysomes

A

small circular aggregations that are formed by a single strand of mRNA with ribosomes attached along its length.

64
Q

rough endoplasmic reticulum

A

rER

the portions of the endoplasmic reticulum which are studded with ribosomes

65
Q

Functions of the rough endoplasmic reticulum

A

Synthesize proteins destined for export, integral membrane proteins, and lysosomal proteins

[either going outside the cell wall, inside the cell wall, or within a new cell wall (as lysosomes are essentially vesicles with digestive enzymes)]

helps fold many proteins into the tertiary structure, forming intrachain disulfide bonds and performing the first steps of glycosylation

66
Q

free ribosomes functions

A

synthesizing proteins destined for the cytoplasm, nucleus, and mitochondria

[within the cell membrane, within the nuclear membrane, or within the mitochondrial membrane]

folding and other post-translational modifications also take place there

67
Q

ubiquitin

A

protein which binds to (some) proteins that are damaged or no longer required by the cell as the first step in the process of degrading the damaged proteins into short peptides

68
Q

proteasomes

A

non–membrane bound arrays of proteolytic enzymes which respond to a signal of ubiquitin binding to damaged or no longer required proteins for degradation into short peptides

69
Q

smooth endoplasmic reticulum

A

sER

continuous with and similar to rER except that it lacks ribosomes

70
Q

smooth endoplasmic reticulum functions in most cells

A

lipid biosynthesis (cholesterol), and membrane synthesis and repair (phospholipids synthesis)

In most cells, involved in the storage and release of Ca 2+ ions (an important mechanism of cell signaling)

71
Q

smooth endoplasmic reticulum functions in muscle cells

A

in muscle cells, the sER is called the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The release and reuptake of Ca 2+ ions by the sER activates the contractile mechanism of the muscles

72
Q

smooth endoplasmic reticulum functions in liver cells

A

in liver cells, sER is rich in cytochrome P450 and plays a major role in the metabolism of glycogen and detoxification of various noxious metabolic by-products, drugs, and alcohol

73
Q

lysosomes

A

membrane-bound organelles which contain degradative enzymes which can digest proteins not degraded by proteasomes

74
Q

passive diffusion

A

type of transport that is dependent on the presence of a concentration gradient across the membrane and also on the size and polarity of the molecule

(e.g. lipids/lipid-soluble molecules and gases like O2, N, and CO2 passively diffuse freely)

75
Q

facilitated diffusion

A

type of transport that involves the movement of polar/charged/hydrophilic molecules (e.g. water, ions, glucose, amino acids, etc.) passively down an electrochemical gradient with the use of protein carrier molecules

76
Q

two types of intermembrane protein carrier molecules

A

pore/channel - forms a water-filled channel across the membrane through which selected molecules/ions can pass depending on concentration, size, and electrical charge. Can be gated (i.e. the pore is open or closed depending on different physiological conditions)

transporter/carrier - binds a particular molecule/ion and then undergoes a change in conformation, moving the substrate to the other side of the membrane

77
Q

active transport

A

type of transport that is independent of electrochemical gradients, and often operates against extreme electrochemical gradients

E.g. Na+-K+ ATPase

78
Q

bulk transport

A

transport of large molecules or small particles into, out of, or between compartments within the cell that is mediated by subcellular, transient membrane-bound vesicles

E.g. endocytosis, exocytosis, and intracellular transport vesicles

79
Q

transport vesicles

A

formed by the assembly of a protein ‘coat,’ leading to the budding of a section of the membrane which is pinched off to form a vesicle

at their destination, the reverse process takes place when the transport vesicle fuses with the target membrane, incorporating into it and releasing its contents

80
Q

Golgi apparatus functions

A

an important site of protein and lipid glycosylation

the site of synthesis of many glycosaminoglycans that form the extracellular matrix

81
Q

cisternae

A

4 to 6 saucer-shaped membrane-bound sacs with make up the Golgi apparatus

82
Q

cis and trans Golgi network

A

CGN and TGN, respectively

a network of tubules comprised of the Golgi apparatus’ outermost cisternae

83
Q

coated vesicles

A

the transport method of proteins synthesized in the rER to the Golgi apparatus; created by the coat protein complex II

84
Q

coat protein complex II

A

COP II

the proteins responsible for the formation of vesicles from the endoplasmic reticulum (coated vesicles) which transport proteins to the Golgi apparatus

85
Q

coat protein complex I

A

COP I

the coated vesicles which pass proteins (not very large ones) from cisterna to cisterna through the Golgi apparatus

86
Q

secretory granules

A

secretory vesicles of the Golgi apparatus which became increasingly condensed as they migrated through the cytoplasm into these matured granules

expelled through exocytosis

87
Q

SNAREs

A

a group of membrane proteins that regulate docking and the fusion of coated vesicles to their target membrane

[these proteins enSNARE vesicles into the membrane]

88
Q

constitutive secretion

A

secretory vesicles are delivered to the cell membrane after they are formed, and the protein product is IMMEDIATELY released; continuous exocytosis which is not regulated, it just goes from Golgi to wall without guidance

happens in all cells, required to maintain the cell membrane

89
Q

regulated secretion

A

signal-dependent exocytosis

occurs in specialized secretory cells (e.g. digestive enzymes into the duodenum)

90
Q

porosome

A

a transient opening that occurs after the secretory granules dock with the plasma membrane and through which the secretory product is discharged

91
Q

endocytosis

A

the collective name for the variety of processes by which cells take up particulate matter and large macromolecules

92
Q

phagocytosis

A

a form of endocytosis that is used by specialized phagocytic cells to ingest particulate matter (e.g. bacteria, fungi, apoptotic cells), usually larger than 0.5 µm

93
Q

pinocytosis

A

a form of endocytosis that is used by all cells to take up fluid and solutes

94
Q

clathrin-mediated endocytosis

A

takes place continuously, with clathrin-coated pits constantly forming and pinching off to form coated vesicles to take in extracellular fluid and molecules, or specific molecules which bind to certain cell surface receptors

[clathrin-mediated is constantly-making vesicles]

95
Q

clathrin-coated pits

A

areas of the plasma membrane which constantly form and pinch off to form coated vesicles

96
Q

clathrin

A

binds to specialized areas of the plasma membrane and shapes them into vesicles, thus the cell takes up extracellular fluid and molecules

97
Q

sorting endosomes

A

dynamic tubulovesicular structures, usually found close to the plasma membrane, with which clathrin-coated vesicles fuse

98
Q

recycling endosomes

A

receive most of the membrane and its intrinsic receptors after dissociation of receptors and ligands taken in by endocytosis, and then shuttle the contents back to the cell surface

99
Q

multivesicular body

A

sorting endosome that is moved towards the Golgi apparatus where it becomes a late endosome and fuses with a lysosome

100
Q

late endosome

A

what multivesicular bodies become after they are moved towards the Golgi apparatus, after which they fuse with lysosomes for degredation

[late = death of contents]

101
Q

endolysosomes

A

the degradative enzymes within the lysosomes

102
Q

transcytosis

A

the process when vesicles leave the sorting endosome and migrate to another part of the cell membrane, such as the basal membrane of an epithelial cell. There, the vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane, releasing its contents to the extracellular space

used in the GI tract for absorption of nutrients from food

103
Q

neutrophil

A

specialized phagocytic cell

104
Q

macrophage

A

specialized phagocytic cell

105
Q

pseudopodia

A

the initial step of phagocytosis wherein extensions of the cell surface that form when bacterium binds to cell surface receptors, extending around the organism until they fuse

106
Q

phagosome

A

when pseudopodia have fused around a bacterium and the bacterium is engulfed in a membrane-bound pocket within the cytoplasm during phagocytosis

107
Q

phagolysosome

A

the membrane-bound pocket that occurs when a phagosome fuses with a lysosome

subjects the bacterium to the toxic activities of the lysosomal enzymes, which also break down the components of the dead bacteria, which may be released into the cytoplasm, exocytosed from the cell, or remain in the cytoplasm as a residual body

108
Q

residual body

A

the components of the dead bacteria that remain in the cytoplasm after bacterium is degraded within a phagolysosome

109
Q

autophagy

A

the degradation of cellular organelles by lysosomes

110
Q

lipofuscin granules

A

with advancing age, residual bodies accumulate in the cells of some tissues from phagocytosis and appear as these brown granules

111
Q

microfilaments

A

extremely fine strands (5 to 9 nm in diameter) of the protein actin

112
Q

actin

A

makes up microfilaments and each actin filament (F-actin) consists of two protofilaments twisted together to form a helix

113
Q

protofilaments

A

consist of multiple G-actin (globular actin) monomers joined together head to tail and associated with ATP molecules to provide energy for contraction

114
Q

cell cortex

A

a robust supporting meshwork beneath the plasma membrane, formed by actin in association with various transmembrane and linking proteins, which protects against deformation and yet can be rearranged to accommodate changes in cell morphology

115
Q

actin functions

A

comprises microfilaments and the skeleton of certain membrane specializations, such as microvilli

plays a central role in cell movement, pinocytosis, and phagocytosis

may also bind to intrinsic plasma membrane proteins to anchor them in position

116
Q

intermediate filaments

A

proteins which have a purely structural function and consist of filaments that self-assemble into larger filaments and bind intracellular structures to each other and to plasma membrane proteins [they intermediate btw structures and PMP’s]

they are intermediate in size between microfilaments and microtubules (approximately 10 nm in diameter)

117
Q

keratin/cytokeratin

A

an intermediate filament family that is characteristic of epithelial cells, where they form a supporting network within the cytoplasm and are anchored to the plasma membrane at intercellular junctions

118
Q

vimentin

A

intermediate filament found in cells of mesodermal origin

119
Q

desmin

A

intermediated filament found in muscle cells (skeletal, smooth, and cardiac)

associated with desmosomes in the heart

120
Q

neurofilament proteins

A

intermediate filament found in nerve cells and glial fibrillary acidic protein in glial cells

121
Q

lamin

A

intermediate filaments that form a structural layer on the inner side of the nuclear membrane

122
Q

microtubules

A

comprised of globular protein subunits which can readily be assembled and disassembled to provide for alterations in cell shape and position of organelles

much larger than microfilaments (25 nm in diameter)

123
Q

the two types of microtubule subunits

A

α- and β-tubulin, which polymerise to form a hollow tubule; when seen in cross-section, thirteen tubulin molecules make up a circle

124
Q

centriole

A

specialized microtubule organizing center from where microtubules originate, and it is found in the centrosome

125
Q

how may microtubule movement be effected

A

by the addition or subtraction of tubulin subunits from the microtubules, making them longer or shorter

126
Q

microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) function

A

stabilise the tubular structure of microtubules and include capping proteins

127
Q

capping proteins

A

a part of microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) that stabilise the growing ends of the tubules

128
Q

dynein

A

motor protein which moves along microtubules towards the cell center

129
Q

kinesin

A

motor protein which moves along microtubules away from the cell center

130
Q

centrosomes

A

consisting of a pair of centrioles, each of nine triplets of microtubules, and the centrosome matrix or pericentriolar material, which organizes the microtubules of the cell spindle during cell division

131
Q

microtubules in cilia

A

nine pairs of microtubules form a cylindrical structure and movement occurs by rearrangement of chemical bonds between adjacent microtubule pairs

132
Q

diplosome

A

a pair of centrioles

133
Q

aster

A

the star-like arrangement created when microtubules radiate outwards from the centrioles during cell division

134
Q

cellular respiration

A

the process during which the sequential breakdown of organic molecules creates a continuous supply of energy for cells; results in energy stored in the form of ATP molecules

135
Q

glycolysis

A

cellular respiration of glucose that begins in the cytosol, where glucose is partially degraded to form pyruvic acid, yielding a small amount of ATP

136
Q

anaerobic respiration

A

glycolysis that occurs in the absence of oxygen

137
Q

aerobic respiration

A

dependent on a continuous supply of oxygen and takes place within the matrix and on the inner membrane, a process enhanced by the large surface area provided by the cristae

138
Q

adipose cells

A

fat cells where triglycerides are stored

139
Q

outer membrane of the mitochondria

A

this layer relatively permeable due to the protein porin, which allows free passage of small molecules

also contains enzymes that convert certain lipid substrates into forms that can be metabolised within the mitochondrion

140
Q

inner membrane of the mitochondria

A

thinner than the outer membrane, this layer is thrown into complex folds and tubules called cristae that project into the inner cavity

in some cell types, mitochondria typically have tubular cristae

141
Q

inner cavity of the mitochondria

A

filled by the mitochondrial matrix

142
Q

mitochondrial matrix

A

fills the inner cavity of the mitochondria and is the site of the mitochondrial DNA and ribosomes

contains most of the enzymes involved in oxidation of fatty acids and the Krebs cycle

also contains a number of dense matrix granules, the function of which is unknown

143
Q

intermembranous space of mitochondria

A

the space between the outer and inner membranes which contains a variety of enzymes

144
Q

porin

A

a pore-forming protein that which allows free passage of small molecules through the outer membrane of mitochondria

145
Q

cytochromes

A

the carrier molecules of the electron transport chain, and the enzymes involved in ATP production found in the inner membrane of mitochondria

146
Q

unusual features of mitochondria

A

Unique DNA - the mitochondrial matrix contains one or more circular strands of DNA resembling the chromosomes of bacteria

Unique ribosomes - contains ribosomes with a similar structure to bacterial ribosomes

Self-Protein synthesis - mitochondria synthesize 13 of their own constituent proteins, others being synthesised by the usual protein synthetic mechanisms of the cell and imported into the mitochondrion

Self-Replication - mitochondria undergo self-replication in a manner similar to bacterial cell division

147
Q

hepatocytes

A

liver cells

148
Q

β particles

A

irregular single granules that form when plentiful glycogen granules are present

149
Q

glycogen rosettes

A

also called α particles, appear as aggregations that form when plentiful glycogen granules are present

150
Q

peroxisomes/microbodies

A

present in all cells but have different functions in different cell types and in the same cell type in different species

broadly speaking, peroxisomes perform enzymatic oxidation and contain a range of oxidative enzymes

151
Q

peroxisomes/microbodies functions

A

β-oxidation of certain long chain fatty acids

some steps in the synthesis of plasmalogens (lipids found in the myelin sheath of nerve axons) and some steps in the synthesis of bile acids (in the liver)

creates hydrogen peroxide as a by-product during some reactions and then use catalase to utilize the hydrogen peroxide to detoxify other substances, such as phenols and alcohol by peroxidation

152
Q

lipofuscin

A

an intracellular pigment which probably represents an insoluble degradation product of organelle turnover

with increasing age, it accumulates as brown, granular material in the cytoplasm

153
Q

melanin

A

an intracellular

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