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MCAT Behavioral Sciences > Ch 1 - Biology and Behavior > Flashcards

Ch 1 - Biology and Behavior Flashcards

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MCAT flashcards
1
Q

Sensory neurons?

A
  • afferent neurons

- transmit sensory information from receptors to the spinal cord and brain

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2
Q

Motor neurons?

A
  • efferent neurons

- transmit motor information from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands

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3
Q

Interneurons?

A
  • found between other neurons
  • most numerous
  • located predominantly in the brain and spinal cord and are often linked to reflexive behavior
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4
Q

What are Reflex arcs?

A
  • neural circuits that control reflexive behavior
  • use the ability of interneurons in the spinal cord to relay information to the source of stimuli while simultaneously routing it to the brain
  • the brain ultimately gets the signal (cerebral cortex), but the reflexive response ha already occurred by then
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5
Q

Mnemonic for afferent/efferent neurons?

A

Afferent neurons Ascend in the cord towards the brain; Efferent neurons Exit the cord on their way to the rest of the body

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6
Q

What is the difference between CNS and PNS?

A
  • CNS (central nervous system): composed of brain and spinal cord
  • PNS (peripheral nervous system): most cranial and spinal nerves
  • PNS connects CNS to the rest of the body
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7
Q

How is the PNS divided?

A
  • Somatic: consist of sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout the skin, joints, and muscles (voluntary)
  • Autonomic: manages the involuntary muscles associated with internal organs and glands (heartbeat, respiration, digestion, etc.) and helps regulate body temperature by activating sweating or piloerection
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8
Q

How is autonomic nervous system divided?

A
  • parasympathetic: rest and digest

- sympathetic: fight or flight

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9
Q

What are the difference in functions of the parasympathetic/sympathetic NS?

A
  • constrict/dilate pupils
  • stimulates/inhibit flow of saliva
  • constricts/relax bronchi
  • slows/accelerates HR
  • stimulates/inhibits peristalsis and secretion
  • stimulates bile release
  • contracts/inhibits bladder
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10
Q

What neurotransmitter is responsible for parasympathetic responses in the body?

A

acetylcholine

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11
Q

What is Meninges and what does it do? What are its 3 layers?

A
  • thick sheath of connective tissue that covers the brain
  • helps protect the brain, keep it anchored within the skull, and reabsorb cerebrospinal fluid
  • (1) dura mater, (2) arachnoid mater, (3) pia mater
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12
Q

Cerebrospinal fluid?

A
  • the aqueous solution in which the brain and spinal cord rest
  • produced by specialized cells that line the ventricles of the brain
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13
Q

Brainstem?

A
  • most primitive region of the brain

- formed by the hindbrain and midbrain

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14
Q

Limbic system?

A

a group of neural structures primarily associated with emotion and memory

  • aggression, fear, pleasure, and pain
  • contains septal nuclei, amygdala, and hippocampus
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15
Q

What is the relevance of the basic subdivisions of the brain with function?

A
  • basic survival are located at the base of the brain

- more complex functions are located higher up

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16
Q

Cerebral cortex?

A
  • the outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres
  • associated with complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral process (language processing to problem solving from impulse control to long term planning)
  • not smooth surface, has bumps and folds called gyri and sulci
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17
Q

What are the 3 subdivisions of the brain?

A
  • Hindbrain (rhombencephalon) controls balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, and general arousal (cerebellum, medulla oblongata, reticular formation)
  • Midbrain (mesencephalon) receives sensory and motor information from the rest of the body and associated with involuntary reflex responses triggered by visual or auditory stimuli (inferior/suprior colliculi)
  • Forebrain (prosencephalon) associated with complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral process, emotion and memory; greatest influence on human behavior (thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, limbic system, cerebral cortex)
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18
Q

What happens to the rhomencephalon during embryonic development?

A
  • it divides to form the myelencephalon (which becomes the medulla oblongata) and the menencephalon (which becomes the pons and cerebellum)
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19
Q

Medulla oblongata?

A
  • lower brain structure responsible for regulating vital functions such as breathing, HR, and BP
  • division of hindbrain (myelencephalon)
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20
Q

Pons?

A
  • lies above the medulla and contains sensory and motor pathways between the cortex and the medulla
  • division of hindbrain (menencephalon)
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21
Q

Cerebellum?

A
  • at the top of the hindbrain, mushrooming out of the back of the pons
  • helps maintain posture and balance and coordinates body movement
  • division of hindbrain (menenecephalon)
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22
Q

What happens if there is damage/impairment to the cerebellum?

A
  • damage causes clumsiness, slurred speech, and loss of balance
  • alcohol impairs the functions
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23
Q

Colliculi?

A
  • prominent nuclei of the midbrain
  • superior: receives visual sensory input
  • inferior: receives sensory information from auditory system (role in reflexive reactions to sudden loud noises)
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24
Q

What happens to the prosencephalon during embryonic development?

A
  • divides to form telencephalon (which forms cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system) and diencephalon (which forms thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and pineal gland)
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25
Q

Neuropsychology?

A
  • the study of functions and behaviors associated with specific regions of the brain
  • most advantageous to study in animals because many brain lesions are rarely alone in humans
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26
Q

What are cortical maps?

A
  • when you electrically stimulate the cortex causing individual neurons to fire activating the behavioral or perceptual processes associated with those neurons
  • record the brain activity to create a cortical map of the brain
  • need patient cooperation, only local anesthetic needed
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27
Q

Electroencephalogram (EEG)?

A
  • place several electrodes on the scalp the detect and record broad patterns of electrical activity of the brain itself
  • non invasive
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28
Q

Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF)?

A
  • detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the brain
  • assumes that when specific cognitive function activates, blood flow increases in that region
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29
Q

What are the 4 types of imaging and their use?

A
  • CT: multiple Xrays are taken at different angles and processed by a computer to cross sectional slice images of the tissue
  • PET scan: radioactive sugar is injected and absorbed into the body and its dispersion and uptake throughout the target tissue is imaged
  • MRI: uses a magnetic field to interact with hydrogen and map out hydrogen dense regions of the body
  • fMRI: uses the same base technique as MRI, but specifically measures changes associated with blood flow; useful for monitoring neural activity since increased blood flow in regions of the brain is typically coupled with neuronal activation
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30
Q

What does the thalamus do?

A

relay station for sensory information

31
Q

What are the 4 main functions of the hypothalamus?

A
  • the 4 F’s (feeding, fighting, flighting, (sexual) functioning)
  • receptors in hypothalamus regulate metabolism, temperature, and water balance
  • maintain homeostasis and integrates within endocrine system
  • emotional functions
32
Q

What are the 3 types of hypothalamus?

A

Lateral: triggers eating and drinking need (when the Lateral Hypothalamus (LH) is destroyed, one Lacks Hunger)
Ventromedial: provides signal to stop eating, lesion usually leads to obesity (when the VentroMedial Hypothalamus (VMH) is destroyed, one is Very Much Hungry)
Anterior: controls sexual behavior and regulates sleep and body temperature

33
Q

Posterior pituitary?

A
  • comprised of axonal projections from the hypothalamus and is the site of release of hypothalmic hormones anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin
34
Q

Pineal gland?

A
  • key player in several biological rhythms
  • secretes melatonin, which regulates circadian rhythm
  • receives direct signals from the retina for coordination with sunlight
35
Q

Basal ganglia?

A
  • coordinate muscle movement as they receive information from the cortex and relay this information to the brain and spinal cord
  • help make movements smooth and our posture steady
36
Q

Extrapyramidal system?

A
  • gathers information about body position and carries this information through motor neurons
37
Q

Parkinson’s disease?

A
  • chronic illness with destruction of portions of the basal ganglia
  • jerky movements and uncontrolled resting tremors
38
Q

Septal nuclei?

A
  • contain one of the primary pleasure centers in the brain
  • mild stimulation causes intense pleasure
  • association with addiction
  • part of limbic system
39
Q

Amygdala?

A
  • role in defensive and aggressive behaviors like rage and fear
  • lesions result in docility and hypersexual states
  • part of limbic system
40
Q

Hippocampus?

A
  • role in learning and memory processes; specifically helps consolidate information to form long-term memories, and can redistribute remove memories to the cerebral cortex
  • part of limbic system
41
Q

Anterograde v retrograde amnesia?

A
  • anterograde: not being able to establish new long term memories whereas previous memories usually intact
  • retrograde: memory loss of events that happened before injury
42
Q

What are the lobes of the brain?

A
  • F-POT
  • frontal: controls executive function, impulse control, long term planning, motor function, and speech production
  • parietal: controls sensation of touch, pressure, temperature, and pain; spatial processing; orientation; and manipulation
  • occipital: controls visual processing
  • temporal: controls sound processing, speech perception, memory, and emotion (Wernicke’s)
43
Q

Association v projection areas?

A
  • association: area that integrates input from diverse brain regions (prefrontal cortex for example)
  • projection: perform more rudimentary or simple perceptual and motor tasks
44
Q

What happens if the prefrontal cortex is damaged?

A
  • manages executive function by supervising and directing the operation of other brain regions (perception, memory, emotion, impulse control, long term planning)
  • damage impairs its overall supervisory functions
  • may be more impulsive or generally less in control of behavior, depressed
45
Q

Broca’s area?

A
  • in frontal lobe, vitally important for speech production

- usually in only one hemisphere, “dominant” - mostly left

46
Q

Contralateral v ipsilateral communication?

A
  • contralateral: one side of the brain communicates with opposite side of body (motor neurons)
  • ipsilateral: one side of brain communicates with same side of body (hearing)
47
Q

What is difference between dominant and nondominant hemispheres?

A

Dominant (usually left) primarily analytic in function, making it well suited for managing details (letters, words, language-related sounds, speech, reading, writing, arithmetic, complex voluntary movement (more heavily stimulated during language reception and production)
- Broca and Wernicke
Nondominant (usually right) associated with intuition, creativity, music cognition, and spatial processing
- faces, music, emotions, geometry, sense of direction

48
Q

What is Acetylcholine used for?

A
  • used by somatic NS to move muscles (voluntary)
  • used by parasympathetic NS
  • used by central NS for alertness and attention
49
Q

What are the 3 Catecholamines?

A
  • epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine
50
Q

What do Epinephrine and Norepinephrine do?

A
  • maintain wakefulness and alertness and mediate fight or flight response
  • epinephrine acts more as hormone
  • norepinephrine acts more classically as neurotransmitter
51
Q

What does Dopamine do?

A
  • maintain smooth movements and postural stability
  • high levels sometimes associated with schizophrenia
  • low levels with parkinson’s disease
52
Q

What does Serotonin do?

A
  • modulates mood, sleep patterns, eating patterna, and dreaming
53
Q

GABA and Glycine behavior?

A

brain stabilization

54
Q

Glutamate behavior?

A

brain excitation

55
Q

What do Endorphins and enkephalins act as?

A

natural pain killer

56
Q

Hormones in the endocrine system?

A
  • the endocrine system is an internal communication network in the body and it uses chemical messengers (hormones)
  • endocrine slower than nervous system because hormones travel through bloodstream
57
Q

Hypophyseal portal system?

A
  • hypothalamus links endocrine and nervous system and regulates hormonal function of the pituitary glands
  • hypothalamus and pituitary gland are spatially close to each and control is maintain through endocrine release of hormones into the hypophyseal portal system that directly connects the 2 organs
58
Q

Pituitary gland location and function?

A
  • located at the base of the brain and divided into anterior and posterior
  • anterior (master) releases hormones that regulate activities of endocrine glands; but is controlled by hypothalamus
59
Q

Adrenal glands location and function of division?

A
  • located on top of kidneys and divided into:
    • adrenal medulla: releases epinephrine and norepinephrine as part of sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight)
    • adrenal cortex: produces many hormones (corticosteroids) including stress hormones (cortisol) – also contributes to sexual functioning by producing sex hormones (testosterone and estrogen)
60
Q

Gonads?

A
  • sex glands of the body (ovaries/testes)
  • produce sex hormones in higher concentrations, leading to increased levels of testosterone and estrogen
  • sex hormones increases libido and contribute to mating behavior and sexual function
  • higher level of testosterone increase aggressive behavior
61
Q

What is the difference between innate and learned behavior?

A
  • innate: genetically programmed as a result of evolution and is seen in all individuals regardless of environment or experience
  • learned: not based on heredity but instead on experience and environment
62
Q

What is adaptive value in relation to natural selection?

A

the extent to which a trait or behavior positively benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of the species, thus leading to adaptation through natural selection

63
Q

What is the difference between nature and nurture?

A
  • nature: heredity, the influence of inherited characteristics on behavior
  • nurture: the influence of environment and physical surroundings in behavior
64
Q

What is the difference between family studies, twin studies, and adoption studies?

A
  • family: rely on the assumption that genetically related individuals are more similarly genotypically than unrelated individuals
  • twins: comparing concordance rates for a train between monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) twins are better able to distinguish the relative effects of shared environment and genetics.
  • adoption: compare similarities between biological relatives and adopted child to similarities between adoptive relatives and adopted child
65
Q

What is Neurulation?

A
  • occurs when the ectoderm overlying the notochord begins to furrow, forming a neural groove surrounded by 2 neural folds
66
Q

What are neural crests?

A

cells at the leading edge of the neural fold that migrate throughout the body to form disparate tissues including dorsal root ganglia, melanocytes, and calcitonin-producing cells of the thyroid

67
Q

What is the neural tube?

A

where the remainder of the furrow closes that ultimately forms the CNS

68
Q

What is the difference between the alar plate and the basal plate?

A
  • alar: differentiates into sensory neurons

- basal: differentiates into motor neurons

69
Q

What is the umbilical cord?

A

what attaches the fetus to the uterine wall and placenta

70
Q

What is the placenta?

A
  • transmits food, oxygen, and water to the fetus while returning water and waste to the mother
71
Q

What is a reflex?

A
  • a behavior that occurs in response to a given stimulus without higher cognitive input
72
Q

What reflex do infants have that disappear with age? What are 4 examples?

A
  • primitive reflexes
  • ex. rooting reflex: the automatic turning of the head in the direction of a stimulus that touches the cheek
  • ex. Moro reflex: infants react to abrupt movement of their heads by flinging out their arms, then slowly retracting their arms and crying
  • ex. Babinski reflex: causes the toes to spread apart automatically when the sole of the foot is stimulated
  • ex. grasping reflex: occurs when the infant closes his or her fingers around an object placed in his or her hand
73
Q

What are the 2 types of motor skills in infants?

A
  • gross: incorporate movement from large muscle groups and whole body motion (sitting, crawling, walking)
  • fine: involve the smaller muscles of the fingers, toes, and eyes, providing more specific and delicate movement
74
Q

What is the difference between stranger and separation anxiety?

A
  • stranger: a fear and apprehension of unfamiliar individuals
  • separation: a fear of being separated from the parental figure

MCAT Behavioral Sciences (12 decks)

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