Ch. 1-4 Flashcards
What is every living thing made up of basic elements?
carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen
What molecules do the basic elements of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen form?
sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, and nucleotides
What macromolecules do the molecules of sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, and nucleotides combine into?
polysaccharides (complex carbohydrates), proteins, fats, and nucleic acids
What is the definition of Metabolism?
Metabolism is the transfer of energy from one form to another: for example, our muscles converting ATP into movement
Explain the negative feedback mechanism
Negative feedback mechanism consists of receptor that detects stimulus and sends it to the integrating centre which sends the signal to the effector and then response
Explain the positive feedback mechanism
Childbirth would be the example for positive feedback mechanism where the response is increasing the original stimulus until the baby is born
Is it healthy adult male or adult female that has more percentage of water?
It is healthy adult male that has more percentage of water in their body, female usually has more fat
What molecules are hydrophilic?
Polar molecules
What molecules are hydrophobic?
Non-polar molecules
What is amphipathic?
Molecules that are both hydrophilic and hydrophobic
What atom does all living thin is based on?
Carbon
What are building molecules of the body?
Macromolecules
What componenets are macromolecules are assembled from?
Monomers
What is polymer?
Assembled chain of monomers
How is covalent bond formed?
By removing hydroxyl group (OH) from one subunit and Hydrogen from another subunit
What is dehydration synthesis
process of linking together two subunits to form a polymer, removal of a molecule of water (H2O)
What is hydrolysis?
process of disassembling polymers into component monomers which is the reverse of dehydration synthesis, molecule of water is added to break the covalent bond between the monomers
What are protein made up of?
amino acids
What is peptide bond?
The covalent bond linking two amino acids together
What is polypeptide?
The assembled polymer
What are amino acids?
small molecules with a simple basic structure
What are 3 groups of a carbon atom is attached to form the amino acids?
an amino group (-NH2)
a carboxyl group (-COOH)
a functional group (R)
What number of amino acids is essential from total 20 amino acids and what are they?
9 are essential which are histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine,
threonine, tryptophan, and valine and you get it from diet
What are 4 levels of protein structure and explain the characteristic of each protein structure levels.
- Primary-Linear chain of amino acids
- Secondary-Sheet shaped and alpha helix of amino acids
- Tertiary-3 Dimensional folding pattern of protein
- Quaternary-Same 3 dimensional fold pattern but has one more of it
What causes protein unfold or denature?
Changes to the environment of the protein
What environment affects hydrogen bonding or hydrophobic interactions?
Increased temperature or lower pH
Is denature protein active or inactive?
Inactive
Does denaturing proteins impact amino acids?
No
What is anabolic reaction?
Enzymatic reactions that build molecules
What is catabolic reaction?
Enzymatic reactions that break down molecules
What are enzymes?
biological catalyst and is almost always a protein, it speeds up the rate of a specific chemical reaction in the cell
What do DNA and RNA have in common?
They have monomers called nucleotides
What are 3 parts that nucleotide has?
- Five-carbon sugar (ribose or deoxyribose)
- Phosphate
- Nitrogenous base
What does Adenine (A) pair with and Cytosine (C) pair with in structure of DNA?
Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G)
What does Adenine (A) pair with in structure of RNA?
Adenine (A) pairs with Uracil (U) in RNA
What does carbonhydrates do?
Carbohydrates make up the structural framework of cells and play a critical role in energy production and storage
What ratio does carbonhydrate contain elements C, H, O?
a 1:2:1 ratio
What are simple carbonhydrates made up of?
Simple carbohydrates are made up of one or two monomers
What are complex carbonhydrates made up of?
Complex carbohydrates are made up of polymers
What do monosaccharides consist of?
Monosaccharides consist of only one monomer subunit, such as sugar glucose (C6H12O6)
What do disaccharides consist of?
Disaccharides consist of two monosaccharides, such as sugar sucrose which contain two monosaccharides: glucose and fructose
What does surcrose have?
glucose and fructose (table sugar)
What does Lactose have?
glucose and galactose (milk)
What does Maltose have?
glucose and glucose (grain)
Is fibre digested in our digestive tract?
Fibre is a complex carbohydrate that is not digested in our digestive tract
What subunits do fats have?
- Fatty acids
- Glycerol
What is hydrocarbon for fatty acids?
Chains of C and H atoms
What group does hydrocarbon has at the end to from fat molecule?
The chain ends with a carboxyl (-COOH) group
What are examples of saturated fats and unsaturated fats?
Saturated fats:Meat, poultry, dairy, eggs, coconut oil, palm oil, butter, avocados
Unsaturated fats:Olive oil, fish, peanut oil (healthy)& Corn oil, vegetable oil, canola oil, safflower oil (highly processed refined oils are considered less healthy)
How are transfats created and what is that process called?
Trans fats are created by heating liquid vegetable oils in the presence of hydrogen gas, a process called hydrogenation
Where is cholesterol synthesized and located?
Cholesterol is synthesized by liver and they are found in liver and brain cells
What are functions of cholesterol?
- Maintain cell membrane flexibility
- Produce steroid hormones
- Produce bile (used to break down fats)
- Help transport fats through bloodstream (HDLs and LDLs)
What are phospholipids?
primary fats found in cell membranes, along with some cholesterol and they are amphipathic
What does plasma membrane of the cell?
forms the boundary of the cell
What is cytoplasm?
Cytoplasm fills the interior of the cell and includes the organelles
What is cytosol?
Cytosol is the fluid component of the cytoplasm
What does receptor of membrane do?
Receptors bind to substances outside of the cell and affect the function of that cell, such as hormones
What are antigen of membrane?
Antigens are membrane proteins that act as markers, such as bloodtype proteins
What does transport of membrane do?
Transport allows substances to cross the membrane, such as ion channels or carrier proteins
What does adhension of membrane do?
Adhesion connects cells together
What does gap junctions of membrane do?
Gap junctions allow cells to directly communicate
What structures do prokaryotic cells have in common?
Nucleoid region, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall(gram positive/negative), capsule
What structure do prokaryotic cells sometimes have?
Flagellum (plural, flagella): protein fibre that extends from the cell surface, Pilus (plural, pili): like a short flagellum which exchange information between cells
What structures do eukaryotic cells have in common?
Plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus
What structure do eukaryotic cells sometimes have?
Cell wall for fungi some protists, and plants
What is nuclear membrane?
a doublemembrane, also called nuclear envelope
What does Nuclear pores do?
allow molecules to move into and out of nucleus
What is Nucleolus?
Nucleolus is site of transcription of ribosomal RNA
What does rough ER do?
contains ribosomes and is site of protein synthesis (translation)
What is smooth ER ?
the site of lipid and carbohydrate synthesis
What are golgi bodies?
flattened membranes that collect, modify, package, and distribute molecules manufactured in the cell
What does mitochondria do?
Mitochondria produce energy in form of ATP through process of oxidative phosphorylation containing DNA and ribosome
What is ribosome composed of and what does it do?
composed of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and protein
Does protein synthesis
What are lysosomes?
Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes that break down macromolecules and old organelles
What are Peroxisomes?
Peroxisomes break down long-chain fatty acids for use by mitochondria to produce ATP and contain molecules that help to detoxify substances
Liver cells contain high amounts of peroxisomes
What are centrioles?
Centrioles, found in most eukaryotic cells except for plants and fungi, are involved in the organization of spindle fibres (microtubules) that transport chromosomes during cell division
What are microtubules?
Microtubules: large (25nm) hollow tubes
What are Intermediate filaments?
10 nm in width, intertwined rope structure
What are Microfilaments?
7 nm in width, composed of actin proteins
What does collagen do?
gives tissues strength and resists stretching, such as skin, bones, and tendon
What does elastin do?
gives tissues flexibility, such as skin, bladder, lungs, and blood vessels
What are Integrins?
Integrins are membrane-spanning proteins that help to transfer signals to the inside of the cell
What does Fibronectin do?
Fibronectin connects integrins to other extracellular proteins
What are Proteoglycans?
Proteoglycans are glycoproteins that hold water and allow tissues to be highly hydrated, such as skin and joints
What are tight junction?
Tight junctions hold some cell types together and prevent molecules from moving between cells, such as the blood-brain barrier
What are Adhering junctions?
Adhering junctions anchor cells to the ECM, found in cells that undergo a lot of stretching, such as skin
What are gap junctions?
Gap junctions form channels that directly connect cells together and allow them to communicate, such as in the heart muscle to allow for simultaneous contraction
What is simple diffusion?
Simple diffusion is when molecules move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
No ATP and membrane protein required
What is osmosis?
Osmosis is when water moves from an area of higher water concentration to an area of lower water concentration—no ATP required
What happens if solution is hypertonic?
Water will move from cell into solution; cell will shrink
What happens if solution is hypotonic?
Water will move from solution into cell; cell will swell and could burst
What happens if solution is isotonic?
Water will move equally into and out of cell; cell will stay the same
What is facilitated diffusion?
Requires membrane protein, no ATP, and molecules move down their concentration gradient as channels allow for it
What is primary active transport?
Requires membrane protein carriers, ATP required, and molecules move against their concentration gradient
What is sodium and potassium pump?
One of membrane protein carriers that use ATP to pump 3 Na+ out of the cell and 2 k+ into the cell
What is proton pump?
One of membrane protein carriers that uses energy to pump protons across a membrane
What is chemiosmosis?
formation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by the movement of hydrogen ions (H+) across a membrane
What are symport and antiport?
Symport:substances move in the same direction
Antiport:substances move in opposite directions
What does secondary active transport do?
Secondary active transport involves the use of the sodium gradient outside of cells to pull other nutrients such as glucose or amino acids into a cell so that ATP is not required
What is endocytosis?
Endocytosis is the engulfing of substances outside of the cell in order to form a vesicle that is brought inside the cell
What are phagocytosis and pinocytosis of endocytosis?
Phagocytosis: solids, such as immune cell engulfing pathogens
Pinocytosis: fluids, such as human egg engulfing fluids with nutrients before fertilization
What is exocytosis?
Exocytosis is the discharge of substances from vesicles at the inner surface of the cell
What bond ca energy be released?
Energy can be released from molecules that have C–H bonds
What does aerobic respiration require?
The process of aerobic respiration requires oxygen and glucose to make ATP
What is oxidation of cellular respiration?
Oxidation is the loss of electrons
What is reduction of cellular respiration?
Reduction is the gain of electron
What are two stages of cellular respiration?
Glycosis and Krebs cycle
Where does glycosis occur and does it need oxygen?
Occurs in the cytoplasm
Does not require oxygen to generate ATP
Where does Krebs cycle occur and what is the process of it?
Occurs in mitochondria
Harvests energy-rich electrons and protons (NADH) through a cycle of oxidation reactions
Electrons passed to an electron transport chain to power the production of ATP
What is glycosis?
Glycolysis is a sequence of chemical reactions that break one glucose molecule (six carbons) into two pyruvate molecules (three carbons)
What is substrate level phosphorylation?
The breaking of bonds is used to form ATP
What is phosphorylation?
Phosphorylation is the process of adding a phosphate to ADP
How many ATP does glycosis produce?
Glycosis yields small amount of ATP, only four ATP are made for each molecule of glucose
What is oxidation of pyruvate?
In the presence of oxygen, the first step of oxidative respiration in the mitochondrion
What does pyruvate dehydrogenase do?
They cleave off one of three carbons from pyruvate when it’s being oxidized
How is acetyl-CoA is formed during pyruvate oxidation?
Carbon leaves as CO2, h leaves and adds to the NAD to form NADH, remaining two carbons join CoA to form acetyl-CoA
What happens to plenty of ATP during oxidation?
The plenty of ATP causing acetyl-CoA lead to the fat synthesis
Explain 3 stages for Krebs Cycle
- Acetyl-CoA enters the cycle and binds to a four-carbon molecule, forming a six-carbon molecule.
- Two carbons are removed as CO2 and their electrons donated to NAD+. In addition, an ATP is produced.
- The four-carbon molecule is recycled, and more electrons are extracted, forming NADH and FADH2.
What does mitochondria use to make ATP?
Chemiosmosis
What does proton pump use to pump protons across the cristae?
Proton pumps use energetic electrons extracted from food molecules to pump protons across the cristae
Where do NADH and FADH2 transfer their electrons?
Electron transport chain
What is electron transport chain and what does it do?
It is a series of membraneassociated molecules and they transport electrons to each other and act as proton pumps
What are the macromolecules that can be broken down into ATP?
All of them including
Polysaccharides: glucose
Protein: amino acids
Triglycerides: fatty acids and glycerol
Nucleic acids: nucleotides
Where do organisms rely on to produce ATP if there is no oxygen?
They rely on the glycosis
What happens during the process of fermentation?
the hydrogen atoms from the NADH generated by glycolysis are donated to organic molecules, and NAD+ is regenerated
What does getting continual NAD+ allow for?
Continual of Glycosis
What does fermentation in yeast produce?
NAD+ and ethanol
What does fermentation in animals produce?
NAD+ and lactate (lactic acid)
How is ATP produced from muscle and liver cells?
ATP is produced from burning fats in muscle and liver
What are the hormones that stimulate breaking fat into ATP or maintain blood sugar?
Glucagon
Epinephrine and norepinephrine
Growth Hormone
DHEA
Thyroid hormones
