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Cereal Flashcards

1
Q

Cereal

A

Flowering plants of the grass family cultivated for the food value of their grains

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2
Q

Legume

A

A family of plants, including many valuable food, forage and cover species, such as peas, beans and soybeans.

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3
Q

The green revolution: 1960-c.1990

A

Used classical plant breeding methods to dramatically increase yields of wheat and rice.

Characteristics of green revolution rice and wheat:

  • Semi-dwarf
  • Responsive to N fertiliser
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4
Q

To increase yield more and more fertiliser is applied

A
  • Global wheat production risen over 2.5x since 1960
  • Fertiliser use risen 4.3x since 1960
  • Agricultural subsidies increased fertiliser use.

[Phillips & Norton, 2012]

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5
Q

Why select for reduced stem length?

A

If elongation of the stem is excessive plant may fall over = lodging

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6
Q

How to reduce stem length?

A

Treatments that reduce Gibberellin production produce ‘dwarf’ plants in some species whilst increased ethylene production may also reduce elongation

There is an interaction - shorter strawed varieties will not lodge when extra fertiliser added and so the increased yield can be harvested

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7
Q

Impact of breeding and agronomy on yield

A

Almost a global increase in grain output

Africa has not seen the same increase because of:

  • Less investment in seeds that fit the climatic conditions.
  • A lack of research into orphan crops
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8
Q

Factors contributing to the yield plateau- Yields are up, but growth is slowing

A
  • Most direct ways of increasing yields have already been exploited.
  • Recent agricultural research not focused on increased yields.
  • Decline in cereal prices.
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9
Q

genetics selection

A

Selection of a new variety depends on the availability of genetic variation.

But (in conventional plant breeding) selection is based upon what you see (or measure) i.e. the phenotype.

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10
Q

Phenotype

A

genotype + environmental effects

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11
Q

Heritability

A

genetic variation/phenotypic variation

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12
Q

plant characteristics determined by

A

a single gene with two alleles

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13
Q

Wheat types

A 
Common wheat or Bread wheat  
Durum 
Einkorn 
Emmer 
Spelt
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14
Q

Common wheat or Bread wheat

A

(T. aestivum) The most widely cultivated in the world

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15
Q

Durum

A

(T. durum) Pasta wheat . The second most widely cultivated wheat

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16
Q

Einkorn

A

(T. monococcum) Animal feed. Domesticated at the same time as emmer wheat, but never reached the same importance.

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17
Q

Emmer

A

(T. dicoccon) Cultivated in ancient times but no longer in widespread use.

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18
Q

Spelt

A

(T. spelta) Cultivated in limited quantities

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19
Q

How wild wheat breed modern bread wheat

A

Einkorn x wild wheat = emmer (selections to form Durum) x wild wheat = modern bread wheat

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20
Q

which wheat are of minor economic importance

A

Einkorn, emmer and spelt

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21
Q

5% of the wheat crop is

A

durum wheat

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22
Q

95% of the wheat crop is

A

common wheat

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23
Q

Wheat provides % of calories consumed

A

~20%

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24
Q

Spring‘ wheat

A
  • Grows quickly
  • Sown in the spring and is induced to flower by increasing day length
  • Mature grains can be harvested within 20-25 weeks
  • Allows more than 1 crop cycle per year
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25
‘Winter' wheat
- Sown in the autumn - Grows slowly through the winter - Induced to flower by a period of cold - Takes advantage of a longer leafy stage to build up reserves
26
Celiac disease
An autoimmune response to the to protein fraction (gliadin) in wheat gluten Damages intestinal mucosa and prevents subsequent malabsorption
27
Nutritional composition of wheat
Cereal crops are deficient in the essential amino acid lysine The principal parts of wheat flour are the protein gluten and starch.
28
Nutritional composition of spring wheat vs winter wheat
Spring has more protein, fat, iron ; less carbohydrate and same fibre
29
Gluten, a protein found in wheat (and other Triticeae), cannot be tolerated by people with
celiac disease (an autoimmune disorder in ~1% of Indo-European populations).
30
Rice
Rice Grain > Brown unpolished rice > Polished rice
31
Polished rice
Removed protein and vitamins | Nearly pure starch grain
32
Rice Nutritive value per 100 g:
Protein 8.6g, Fat 1.1g, CHO 77.4g, Minerals 0.93g, Fibre 1.4g ; Energy 357KCal
33
how many people depend on rice as a staple food | 90% of rice is eaten in_______
~ 3.5 billion | Asia
34
Polishing rice in Indonesia led to_______ as a result of _________
beriberi disease prolonged thiamine (B vitamin) deficiency.
35
Dry beriberi
nervous system damage.
36
Wet beriberi
damage to the cardiovascular system.
37
Golden Rice
Insertion of bacterial gene into rice genome to activate dormant carotenoid biosynthesis pathway = biofortified rice to improve a micronutrient (Vitamin A) deficiency
38
Where rice is the staple diet , what is the problem ? | and can cause?
Vitamin A deficiency causes blindness
39
Increase_________ = yellow/orange colour and presence of vitamin A even in milled rice
beta-carotene (provitamin A)
40
Scuba Rice
- Flash flooding during monsoon season – completely submerged rice - Complete submergence of rice - inhibits aerobic respiration, restricts gas exchange, causes chlorophyll senescence. - Submergence-tolerant (sub1) rice can withstand submergence for up to 2 weeks. [Ismali et al., 2013. Field Crops Research]
41
Legume family
(Fabaceae or alternatively Leguminosae). Legume is synonymous with pod, the fruit; the seeds are inside the pod or legume
42
Importance of legumes
Nitrogen fixers | Major plant sources of protein and oil
43
Nitrogen fixation
Symbiotic association of bacterial Rhizobium species that inhabit nodules on roots. Bacteria convert N2 from the air into ammonia for their use and supply the plant with amino acids. The plant supplies carbohydrate to bacteria for energy and synthesis of cellular material. Strains of Rhizobium are sold to enhance agricultural productivity
44
Peanut
Arachis hypogea - Rich in oil and protein - After fertilization, the flower stalk dips and grows into the ground, where the pod matures.
45
Peanut uses
- Half of U.S. crop for peanut butter; rest for snack food, candy, peanut oil. - Oilcake remaining after pressing oil is rich in protein and used for animal feed.
46
Beans
- Rich in protein and some carbohydrates | - Intestinal gas, caused by bacterial breakdown of indigestible complex carbohydrates in the colon
47
indigestible complex carbohydrates of beans can be improved by
- long cooking time - treatment of cooked beans with enzymes - plant breeding to eliminate complex carbohydrates
48
Favism Symptoms
Hemolytic anemia after eating fava beans or being exposed to the pollen of the fava plant
49
The ________ principle in fava beans is most likely ___________
active hemolytic DOPA- quinone
50
Favism affects
people with a deficiency in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD).
51
G6PD is involved in
the antioxidant defence of red blood cells and protects them from a build up of reactive oxygen species
52
glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase is a _____disorder
Hereditary disorder: An X-linked genetic trait.
53
Legume nutrition
Beans supply protein, complex carbohydrate, fibre and essential vitamins and minerals to the diet, yet are low in fat and sodium and contain no cholesterol.
54
The nutrient composition of beans makes them suited to meet two major dietary recommendations for good health:
- increased intake of starches and complex carbohydrates | - decreased consumption of fat.
55
Legume starch is _____ digested than starch from ___&____ and produces less ________ in __________ & ____upon ingestion.
more slowly cereals and tubers abrupt changes plasma glucose and insulin
56
Starchy legumes are also valuable sources of dietary fibre as well as ________&____
thiamine and riboflavin
57
Legume protein
Contains 20–30% protein which is generally limiting in sulphur –containing amino acids methionine and cysteine.
58
The nutritional quality of legume protein is limited by
the presence of both heat labile and heat stable antinutrients as well as an inherent resistance to digestion of the major globulins.
59
Biological value of legume protein limited to % of ? due to amino acid composition .
55-75% of animal protein
60
Ways to increase sulphur containing amino acids
- Insert and replace amino acid residues at appropiate sites in a storage protein - Increase endogenous levels of methionine rich protein - Introduce heterologous genes for methionine rich protein - Manipulate key genes in the biosynthetic pathway

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