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Physiology 210 > Central Nervous System > Flashcards

Central Nervous System Flashcards

1
Q

3 Main Components of the Brain

A

Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Brainstem

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2
Q

Cerebrum

A

The largest part of the brain
Divided into the left and right hemispheres
Divided into two layers = white and gray matter

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3
Q

Corpus Callosum

A

Part of the cerebrum

Nerve axons that link the right and left hemispheres of the cerebrum so that the two hemispheres can communicate

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4
Q

Cerebral Cortex

A

The outer layer of the gray matter of the cerebrum
4 lobes make up the cerebral cortex
Functions: sensory perception, motor control, language, cognitive functions

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5
Q

Frontal Lobe

A

Functions in personality, emotions, control of movement

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6
Q

Parietal Lobe

A

Mediates skin and muscle sensation

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7
Q

Occipital Lobe

A

Vision

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8
Q

Temporal Lobe

A

Hearing and memory functions

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9
Q

Forebrain

A

Comprises the cerebrum and diencephalon

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10
Q

Cerebellum

A

Controls balance and voluntary movement

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11
Q

Brainstem

A 
composed of the:
midbrain
pons
medulla oblongata
controls:
respiration
locomotion
cardiovascular functions
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12
Q

Basal Ganglia

A

functions: movement inhibition, inhibition of muscles antagonistic to the desired movement

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13
Q

Thalamus

A

functions: sensory switchboard which selects and relays sensory signals to the cortex

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14
Q

Hypothalamus

A

functions: homeostasis, emotions

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15
Q

Spinal Cord

A

locomotor pattern generator

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16
Q

Limbic System Structures

A

Includes: thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, olfactory bulbs in the nose, and septal nuclei

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17
Q

Limbic System Functions

A

Involved in learning, emotion, appetite, sex functions, and endocrine integration

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18
Q

Meninges

A

3 layers of membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord

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19
Q

Dura Mater

A

Tough outer layer

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20
Q

Arachnoid Mater

A

Spidery intermediary mesh

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21
Q

Pia Mater

A

Delicate inner layer

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22
Q

Meningitis

A

infection of the meninges

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23
Q

Cerebrospinal Fluid

A

Produced in brain ventricles

Reabsorbed into the blood in the venous system at the same rate it is produced

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24
Q

Cerebrospinal Fluid Function

A

Maintain an appropriate electrolyte balance around neurons

Bathe and support neural tissue

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25
Q

4 Types of Glial Cells

A

Astrocytes
Oligodendrocytes
Ependymal Cells
Microglia

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26
Q

Astrocytes

A 
Physically supports neurons
Form the blood-brain barrier
Form scar tissue which inhibits regeneration of axons
Recycling of neurotransmitter molecules
Maintain electrolyte balance
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27
Q

Oligodendrocytes

A

cells with relatively few branches that form the myelin sheath around neuronal axons

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28
Q

Ependymal Cells

A

Produce the cerebrospinal fluid

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29
Q

Microglia

A

scavengers

ingest bacteria and cellular fluid

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30
Q

Do Neurons Form Tumors?

A

No

neurons cannot divide so brain tumors do not develop from neuronal cells

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31
Q

Types of brain tumours

A

Arise from glial cells = gliomas

Arise in the meninges = meningioma

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32
Q

Hydrocephalus

A

Occurs when the reabsorption of CSF is blocked and CSF builds up
Treated with drainage tubes

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33
Q

Blood-Brain Barrier

A

Capillaries of the BBB are less porous than in the rest of the body
Protects neurons from chemical fluctuations and large molecules
Provides oxygen and glucose
Selectively transports molecules needed by the brain while excluding harmful molecules

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34
Q

CNS

A

the brain and spinal cord

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35
Q

Afferent Neurons

A

sensory input conveyed to the CNS by the peripheral nervous system

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36
Q

Efferent Neurons

A

motor commands conveyed from the CNS to the peripheral nervous system

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37
Q

Somatic Nervous System

A

Voluntary movement

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38
Q

Vertebra Column

A

Boney structure that supports the trunk and the head on the legs. Inside the vertebrae is where the spinal cord is found

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39
Q

Spinal Cord

A

Conveys signals from sensory receptors to the brain and signals from the brain to the effector organs
Each spinal nerve innervates a specific area of skin (dermatome) and a specific set of muscles (myotome)

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40
Q

Dorsal Root Ganglion

A

A cluster of neurons in a dorsal root of a spinal nerve

cell bodies of sensory neurons are located in the dorsal root ganglion

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41
Q

PNS and CNS interface

A

Sensory afferent axons enter the spinal cord through the dorsal roots
Sensory afferent axons bifurcate (split) into ascending and descending axons
Motorneurons are located in the ventral horn
The efferent axons of motorneurons leave the spinal cord through the ventral roots and innervate the muscles

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42
Q

Central Gray Matter

A

comprised of motoneurons, interneurons, dendrites, and axons

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43
Q

Surrounding White Matte

A

Comprised of bundles of axons (tracts) that convey sensory signals

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44
Q

Dermatomes

A

The 31 spinal nerves on each side of the body provide sensory innervation to skin areas

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45
Q

Cervical Nerves

A

mediate sensory input from the arms

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46
Q

Thoracic Nerves

A

mediate sensory information from the abdomen

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47
Q

Lumbar, Sacral, and Coccygeal Nerves

A

mediate sensory information from the legs and feet

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48
Q

Spinal Cord Injury

A

When the spinal cord is damaged at a particular level, sensation and motor functions below that level are absent or abnormal depending on how severe the damage is

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49
Q

Spinal Damage at C6 or C7

A

Quadriplegia

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50
Q

Spinal Damage at L1 or L2

A

Paraplegia

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51
Q

You can only control what you see

A

Sensory information is important in the control of movement

Everything that is controlled requires sensory input

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52
Q

Modality

A

The structure of a sensory receptor determines which modality of stimulus it responds to
The modality activating a given receptor is called the receptor’s adequate stimulus
Different modalities are processed in different brain regions

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53
Q

Meissner’s Corpuscles

A

responds to light touch of the skin

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54
Q

Merkel’s Corpuscles

A

responds to touch

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55
Q

Free Nerve Ending

A

responds to pain

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56
Q

Pacinian Corpuscles

A

distributes and amplifies the mechanical deformation of the nerve endings that are right in the middle of the receptor - respond vigorously to vibrations

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57
Q

How Pacinian Corpuscles Work

A

slippery layers called lamellae slide over each other as the pressure of the corpuscles rises

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58
Q

Ruffini Corpuscles

A

slow adapting mechanoreceptors that respond to skin stretch and also function as thermoreceptors

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59
Q

Warm receptors

A

Increase firing rate as their temperature rises

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60
Q

Cold receptors

A

Increase firing rate as their temperature falls

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61
Q

Sensory receptor A

A

Specialized endings of afferent axons that project directly to the spinal cord

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62
Q

Sensory receptor B

A

Separate cells that respond to stimulus and transmit signals via synapses with afferent neurons

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63
Q

Examples of sensory receptor B

A

Cochlear hair cells, retinal photoreceptor cells

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64
Q

Examples of sensory receptor A

A

Skin and muscles receptors

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65
Q

Somatosensory receptors

A

cover the surface of the body and signal a variety of sensory modalities to the CNS

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66
Q

Mechanoreceptors

A

sense local tissue deformation in skin and viscera

67
Q

Thermoreceptors

A

sense temperature in the skin and brain

68
Q

Nociceptors

A

Sense pain (tissue damage) in skin, viscera, and muscle

69
Q

Proprioceptors

A

sense movement and force muscles and joints

70
Q

Vestibular receptors

A

senses head acceleration and tilt

71
Q

Conduction Velocities of Axons

A

Muscle spindle primary endings/Golgi tendon has the fastest conduction
Nociceptors/warmth receptor/preganglionic fibres/postganglionic fibres have the slowest conduction

72
Q

Stimulus Intensity

A

As stimulus intensity increases, the membrane potential at the initial segment of the sensory receptor’s afferent axon increases until action potentials are generated
Further increases cause increases in action potential rate and the recruitment of more sensory receptors
Changes in the regularity of firing rates may also encode stimulus properties

73
Q

Spinal Cord Tracts

A

Relationship between the intensity of mechanical stimuli sensed in the PNS and release of the transmitter within the CNS

74
Q

Frequency Coding

A

The bigger the stimulus, the more the membrane channels in the sensory ending are distorted, the greater the number of action potentials

75
Q

Population Coding

A

The bigger the stimulus, the more sensory neurons are recruited into activity = more APs

76
Q

Temporal Pattern Coding

A

Variability of firing rate may mediate certain types of sensations

77
Q

Duration

A

Some receptors adapt rapidly to stimuli while others adapt very slowly

78
Q

Slow adapting receptors

A

tonic receptors = generate action potentials throughout the whole duration of the stimulus

79
Q

Rapidly adapting receptors

A

respond only briefly each time the stimulus changes

80
Q

Adaptation

A

reduction in response in the continuous presence of a stimulus
Different sensory receptors vary in their speed of adaptation to stimuli

81
Q

Location

A

Depends on:
the density of receptors and the sizes of their respective fields
convergence and divergence
lateral inhibition focuses ascending sensory signals, enhancing spatial acuity

82
Q

Two-point discrimination

A 
receptors = tightly packed: the receptive fields of the receptors are small and sensory acuity is high
receptors = not tightly packed: the receptive fields of receptors are larger and sensory acuity is low
83
Q

Overlapping Receptive Fields

A

overlapping stimulation between neighbouring receptive fields provides general information about the location of a stimulus

84
Q

Divergence

A

each sensory afferent sends branches to many neurons in the CNS

85
Q

Convergence

A

a given neuron in the CNS receives inputs from many sensory afferents

86
Q

Lateral Inhibition

A

sharpens contrast by focusing activation of CNS neurons

stimulus location is perceived more precisely

87
Q

Sensation

A

the conscious awareness of a stimulus

88
Q

Perception

A

when a sensation is combined with an understanding of its meaning

89
Q

Topographic Maps

A

within the sensory cortex
projection area is related to functional importance
maps change according to use - dynamic plasticity

90
Q

Descending Inhibition

A

Activity descending from higher centers in the brain + brainstem can screen out certain types of sensory information by inhibiting neurons in the afferent pathway

91
Q

Presynaptic Inhibition

A

acts by reducing transmitter release at the synapse between first-order and second-order sensory neurons
inhibits specific sensations
lasts several milliseconds

92
Q

Postsynaptic Inhibition

A

acts by hyperpolarizing membrane of second-order sensory neurons
non-selective - reduces the effect of all synaptic inputs
lasts less than 1 millisecond

93
Q

Process of Pain

A

damaged tissue releases prostaglandins and histamine which activate pain receptors
activity in pain fibres causes the release of substance P in the spinal cord
signals in projection neurons ascend to pain centers in the brain

94
Q

Aspirin

A

Blocks production and release of prostaglandins by damaged tissue

95
Q

Gabapentin

A

Blocks conduction in C-fibre axons

96
Q

Opioids

A

Cause opioid receptors in pain fibre-endings to block the release of substance P onto projection neurons in the spinal cord

97
Q

Referred Pain

A

the sensation of pain is experienced at a site other than the injured or damaged tissue

98
Q

Supraspinal Centres Controlling Movement

A 
Involved in generating motor commands
Includes:
-sensorimotor cortex
-brainstem
-cerebellum
-cerebral cortex
-thalamus
 -basal ganglia
99
Q

Feedback Control

A

The brain, cerebellum, and brainstem issue a motor command (desired limb position) to neuronal networks in the spinal cord
Sensory receptors in the muscles, etc, signal the actual position back to the spinal cord, which compares this to the desired position and generates an output to the muscles so that the difference between actual and desired states is minimized

100
Q

Muscle Spindle

A

sensory receptor that signals changes in muscle length

located in parallel with the force-producing muscle fibres

101
Q

Tendon Organs

A

respond to force produced by muscle

tendinous fascicles at the ends of muscle fibres

102
Q

Intrafusal Muscle Fibres

A

inside the muscle spindle
connective tissue capsule and stretch receptors
generate only tiny amounts of force

103
Q

Extrafusal Muscle Fibres

A

main muscle fibres found outside the muscle spindle that produce all the measurable force

104
Q

Alpha Motor Neurons

A

Activate the main muscle extrafusal fibres to contract

muscle shortening

105
Q

Gamma Motor Neurons

A

Activate intrafusal muscle fibres
activates at the end of each muscle spindle, the middle part of the spindle is non-contractile
Gamma NM activity increases the sensitivity of muscle spindles to length changes

106
Q

Alpha-Gamma Coactivation (Theory)

A

intrafusal contraction compensates for extrafusal muscle shortening, tightening the spindle up so that the afferents maintain or even increase their firing

107
Q

Alpha-Gamme Coactivation (Actual)

A

In normal movements, coactivation of gamma NMs is usually not that strong, so spindle afferent firing actually decreases
BUT less so than in the absence of gamma NM activity

108
Q

Activation of Golgi Tendon Organs

A

Passive stretching of a muscle causes Golgi tendon organ afferents to respond with small increases in their rate of firing

109
Q

Stretch Reflex

Stimulus = muscle stretch

A

Response:
1. spindle-afferent-mediated monosynaptic excitation of agonist MNs and disynaptic inhibition (via interneurons) of antagonist MNs
opposes change in muscle length
2. GTO-mediated disynaptic inhibition of agonist MNs and disynaptic excitation of antagonist MNs
opposes change in muscle force

110
Q

Flexor Withdrawl Reflex

A

noxious stimulus evokes flexion of ipsilateral leg and extension of the contralateral leg

111
Q

Primary Motor Cortex

A

also called the sensorimotor cortex

highlights the importance of sensory signals in motor control

112
Q

Somatotopic Maps

A

By stimulating specific parts of the brain surface, movements of body parts can be elicited
Hand and face representations are very large
Neurons in the primary motor cortex can be activated by TMS

113
Q

Corticospinal Tract

A

Axons from neurons in the sensorimotor cortex form the CST
CST neurons make monosynaptic connections with spinal alpha motoneurons, whose axons, in turn, activate muscles
CST neurons are only one CNS synapse away from muscle

114
Q

CST lesions

A

(stroke, cerebrovascular accident, brain attack)

results in spastic hemiplegia

115
Q

Symptoms of CST lesions

A

weakness (paresis) or paralysis
exaggerated stretch reflexes
spasms
speech deficits (dysarthria) - particularly in the left side of the brain
attentional deficits (aphasia, apraxia, hemineglect)

116
Q

Aphasia

A

inability to understand the meaning of sensory inputs

117
Q

Apraxia

A

Problem using day to day objects

118
Q

Hemineglect

A

occurs when patients fail to be aware of items to one side of their body

119
Q

Broca’s Area

A

Motor aspects of speech

120
Q

Lesions of Broca’s Area

A

motor aphasia (slurring speech)

121
Q

Wernicke’s Area

A

comprehension of language

association of visual, auditory, and tackle input with words

122
Q

Lesions of Wernicke’s Area

A

sensory aphasia (difficulty understanding the meaning of sensory input) and dyslexia

123
Q

Cerebellum Inputs

A

sensory input from spinal cord

motor commands from the cerebral cortex

124
Q

Cerebellum Functional Divisions

A

Vermis = posture, neck and axial musculature
Intermediate Zone = locomotion
Lateral Zone = coordinating complex, skilled movements of arms, hands, and fingers
Flocculonodular Lobe = balance

125
Q

Basal Ganglia Anatomy

A

large, deep cerebral nuclei

126
Q

Basal Ganglia Functions

A

involved in initiating movement

involved in suppressing the activity of muscles that would resist the intended movement

127
Q

Basal Ganglia Dysfunction

A

Poverty of movement = bradykinesia
eg Parkinson’s disease
Involuntary movement = dyskinesia
eg Tourette’s syndrome

128
Q

Brainstem functions

A
  • control of respiratory and cardiovascular musculature
  • control of transmission in sensory, motor, reflex, and pain pathways
  • initiation of locomotion
129
Q

Alert Wakefulness

A

high frequency, low amplitude rhythm called the beta rhythm

130
Q

Relaxed Wakefulness

A

lower frequency, higher amplitude called the alpha rhythm

131
Q

Relaxed Drowsiness

A

decrease in the alpha wave amplitude and frequency

132
Q

NREM Sleep

A

divided into three stages
each stage is characterized by an EEG pattern with a lower frequency and larger amplitude than the previous one
harder to wake someone up as it progresses

133
Q

N1 - Light Sleep

A

alpha waves become reduced in frequency and amplitude and the percentage of time that they are present
some theta waves

134
Q

N2 - Further Lack of Sensitivity

A

alpha waves are replaced by random waves of greater amplitude

135
Q

N3 - Deep Sleep

A

more theta and delta activity

136
Q

REM Sleep

A

stage of sleep associated with dreaming and rapid eye movement, muscles of the body are relaxed and the brain is very active
brain waves mimic the beta waves of alert wakefulness

137
Q

Timing of Sleep States

A

The EEG reveals 5 cycles of deep and light sleep in 8 hours
-90-minute cycles
REM sleep gets longer and longer the closer to morning
N1-> N2 -> N3 -> N2 -> REM

138
Q

Glasgow Coma Scale

A 
used to classify the level of consciousness of a person 
based on:
-eye movements 
-responses to questions
-voluntary movements
139
Q

Criteria for Brain Death

A
  1. nature and duration of the coma must be known
  2. cerebral and brainstem function are absent
  3. supplementary criteria include a flat EEG for 30 minutes
140
Q

Reticular Activating System

A

= a set of nuclei in the brainstem and hypothalamus

  • during wakefulness, visual and other sensory inputs activate neurons in the reticular activating system
  • the neurons release monoamines to the hypothalamus and other brain areas
  • hypothalamus supplies orexins to the thalamus and cortex to maintain wakefulness
141
Q

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus

A

activates orexin-producing neurons in the morning to promote wakefulness
secretes melatonin at dusk
sets the circadian rhythm

142
Q

Sleep Centre

A

a nucleus
found in the preoptic nucleus of the hypothalamus
causes GABAergic inhibition to the reticular activating system to reduce orexin

143
Q

Awake

A

suprachiasmatic nucleus, negative energy balance, limbic system activity

144
Q

Sleep

A

high blood concentration of adenosine inhibits orexin, reduced drive to thalamus and cortex

145
Q

Selective Attention

A

attraction shifts from one focus or attractor to another
coincident attractors are more likely to trigger a shift than separate attractors
thalamus and locus ceruleus in brainstem RAS triggers shifts

146
Q

Conscious Perception

A

specific sets of neurons in different parts of the brain work together to generate the consciousness experience

147
Q

Primary Motivated Behaviour

A

directly related to homeostasis

148
Q

Secondary Motivated Behaviour

A

results in pleasure

can be disadvantageous (overeating)

149
Q

Reward

A

a pathway in the brainstem nuclei releases dopamine within the frontal lobe of the brain which elicits pleasure or a reward

150
Q

Emotions

A

internal attitudes towards events and the environment

151
Q

Emotional Behaviour

A

external response to internal attitudes

152
Q

Emotion: Neuroanatomical Mechanisms

A

Different parts of the brain can be stimulated electrically to elicit particular types of emotions

  • stimulating hypothalamus = rage
  • lesion of amygdala = absence of fear
153
Q

Drug Dependence Diagnosis

A

There are 7 criteria and substance dependence is diagnosed when three or more of the specified criteria occur within a twelve-month period

154
Q

Depression Treatment

A

act by maintaining levels of serotonin and norepinephrine at synapses in the CNS
thought to cause neurogenesis

155
Q

Working/Short-Term Memory

A

easily acquired, easily lost
episodic = recent events, places
visuospatial = recent sights, locations
phonological = recent words, sounds

156
Q

Long-Term Memory

A 
A slower period of acquisition lasts maybe even a lifetime
declarative = conscious
-semantic = facts
-episodic = personal experiences
procedural = sub-conscious
-stimulus-response behaviours
-motor skills
157
Q

Consolidation

A

Transfer from the stm to the ltm probably happens in the temporal lobe

158
Q

Caudate Nucleus

A

implicated in consolidating stimulus-response associations taught during operant conditioning and in solving sequence tasks

159
Q

Concussion

A

measured by type and duration of amnesia

160
Q

Retrograde Amnesia

A

loss of memory of events prior to the injury

161
Q

Anterograde Amnesia

A

loss of memory of event after the injury

162
Q

Korsakoff’s Syndrome

A

damage to the hippocampus

complete anterograde amnesia

163
Q

Alzheimer’s Disease

A

degeneration of memory-holding neurons (overexcitation)

Physiology 210 (12 decks)

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