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Physiology 210 > Blood Physiology > Flashcards

Blood Physiology Flashcards

1
Q

Function of Blood

A
  1. Transport of substances in blood
  2. Regulation of ion and pH balance
  3. Defense and Immune protection
  4. Hemostasis
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2
Q

Centrifugation

A

Separation of blood

  • upper layer = plasma
  • middle layer = buffy coat (white blood cells and platelets)
  • bottom layer = red blood cells
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3
Q

Hematocrit

A

% of total blood volume occupied by red blood cells

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4
Q

Clinical significance of Hematocrit

A

Indicates anemia or polycythemia

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5
Q

Fluid Compartments

A 
Intracellular = fluid inside of cells
Extracellular = fluid outside of cells
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6
Q

Plasma

A

Liquid portion of blood containing water, electrolytes, organic molecules, trace elements, gases

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7
Q

Albumin

A

Contribute to colloid osmotic pressure of plasma, carry/transport substances in plasma

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8
Q

Globulin

A

clotting factors, enzymes, antibodies, carriers for various substances in blood

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9
Q

Fibrinogen

A

Forms fibrinogen threads for blood clotting

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10
Q

Transferrin

A

Transport of Iron

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11
Q

Red Blood Cells

A

Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide
Biconcave
No nucleus
Contain hemoglobin

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12
Q

Neutrophils

A

Phagocytes

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13
Q

Eosinophils

A

Defence against parasites

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14
Q

Basophils

A

Inflammation, allergies

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15
Q

Monocytes

A

Phagocytes and immune defence

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16
Q

Lymphocytes

A 
B-Cell = antibody production and humoral immunity
T-Cell = cellular immunity
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17
Q

Hematopoiesis

A

Process of formation of blood cells
Before birth - yolk sac, liver, spleen
After birth - bone marrow

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18
Q

Stem Cell

A

undifferentiated cell capable of giving rise to any type of blood cell

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19
Q

Factors Affecting Hematopoiesis

A

Cytokines = small secreted proteins that are released into the blood and act on receptors on target cells

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20
Q

Erythropoietin

A

Regulates production of red blood cells

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21
Q

Thrombopoietin

A

Regulates production of platelets

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22
Q

Hemoglobin

A

Composed of heme (non-protein) and globin (protein)
Hemoglobin A is composed of 4 globin chains (2 alpha and 2 beta) and 4 ferrous ions
Each iron can bind 1 oxygen

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23
Q

Hemoglobin and O2 Transport

A

Oxygen is transported in red blood cells bound to hemoglobin
Hemoglobin binds oxygen in a loose and reversible manner

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24
Q

Factors Affecting RBC Production

A

Cytokines = EPO
Dietary Factors = iron needed for Hb, folic acid, vitamin B12
Intrinsic Factor = made by cell in the stomach and needed for absorption of vitamin B12

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25
Q

Regulation of RBC Production via EPO

A
  1. Decrease in tissue oxygenation
  2. Stimulates the release of erythropoietin from kidneys
  3. Increases production of RBC in bone marrow
  4. Increases oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood
  5. Increased oxygenation of tissues
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26
Q

Hypoxia + Causes

A 
Low oxygen concentration in blood
Caused by:
-low blood volume
-anemia
-low hemoglobin
-poor blood flow
-pulmonary disease
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27
Q

Uptake of Iron

A

Obtained from diet and absorbed into blood in intestine
Transported in blood via transferrin
Body Iron reserve: 50% in dying RBC’s, 25% in iron-containing proteins, 25% stored in liver

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28
Q

Recycling of Iron

A

Hemoglobin broken into heme and globin
globin broken into amino acids
heme broken into iron and bilverdin

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29
Q

Anemia

A

Decreased oxygen-carrying capacity of blood due to a deficiency of red blood cells and/or hemoglobin

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30
Q

Factoring Causing Anemia

A
  • Lack of iron
  • Pernicious anemia - lack of vitamin B12
  • Aplastic anemia - damage to the bone marrow
  • Kidney Disease - low EPO
  • Hemolytic anemia - destruction of RBCs
  • Hemorrhagic anemia - blood loss
  • Abnormal structure of hemoglobin
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31
Q

Sickle Cell Disease

A

Have abnormal Hb called Hbs
A sickle-shaped cell that is hard and non-flexible
Hemolytic anemia

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32
Q

Immunity

A

Process where our body defends against anything foreign - protects our “self” from our “non-self”

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33
Q

Innate/Natural Immunity

A

Nonspecific immunity that we are born with
No memory involved
Involves neutrophils, macrophages, and the complement system

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34
Q

Acquired Immunity

A

Specific immunity that is acquired over time and upon exposure to pathogens
Has memory
Involves lymphocytes, antibodies, and cytotoxic molecules

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35
Q

Appropriate/Inappropriate immune responses

A 
Appropriate = defence, removal of abnormal cells
Inappropriate = allergies, autoimmune response
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36
Q

Inflammation

A

Non-specific innate immune response to tissue damage

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37
Q

Purpose of Inflammation

A

To heal
To destroy non-self agents
Fibrosis

38
Q

Physical Characteristics of Inflammation

A 
Redness
Swelling
Heat
Pain
Loss of function
39
Q

Vascular Events - Inflammation

A

Involves blood vessels

  1. Histamine causes vasodilation of blood cells, increasing blood flow causing redness and heat and it also causes leaky cells with increased permeability, causing a buildup of fluid which causes swelling
  2. Inflammatory mediators are released
40
Q

Cellular Events - Inflammation

A

Involves cells

  1. macrophages kill pathogens
  2. increased movement of white blood cells into the affected area
  3. phagocytosis and destruction of the foreign agent
41
Q

Sequence of Cellular Events - Inflammation

A
  1. Margination of WBCs - move to edge of blood vessels
  2. Tethering + rolling of WBCs - attaching of WBC to endothelial cells of blood vessels + slow rolling along the vessel
  3. Activation of WBC - involves protein expression
  4. Arrest/Firm Attachment - neutrophils bind to complementary proteins
    Emigration/Diapedesis
  5. Chemotaxis
  6. Recognition of non-self by WBC at the site of infection
  7. Phagocytosis of non-self agents
42
Q

Diapedesis

A

White blood cells squeeze in between adjacent endothelial cells to exit out of the blood vessel and move into tissue spaces

43
Q

Chemotaxis

A

Ability of WBCs to move against a concentration gradient

Chemotactic factors attract WBCs to site of infection

44
Q

Phagocytes

A

A cell that can eat other non-self pathogens or dying cells by engulfing them with pseudopodia
eg. monocytes, macrophages, neutrophils

45
Q

Steps of Phagocytosis

A
  1. Recognition of substance to be ingested
  2. Attachment of phagocytes to the substance to be ingested
  3. Pseudopdia reach around substance and come together to form a phagosome inside of the phagocytic cell
  4. Fusion of the phagosome to a lysosome to form a phagolysosome
  5. Destruction of ingested substance by lysosomal enzymes
  6. Release of end products into the cell or out of the cell by exocytosis
46
Q

How do Phagocytes Recognize Bacteria?

A

They have receptors called pattern recognition receptors that recognize a specific pattern of molecules expression on bacteria - do not recognize specific bacteria necessarily

47
Q

Opsonins

A

Molecules added to the surface of bacteria to help in speeding up the rate of phagocytosis

48
Q

Opsonization

A

Coating of bacteria with opsonins facilitates the attachment and phagocytosis of the bacteria by the phagocytic cell

49
Q

Killing by Neutrophils

A

Oxygen-dependent = corrosive oxygen-free radicals products are synthesized to destroy the foreign body
Oxygen-independent = use bactericidal enzymes
-lysosomes
-lactoferrin
-defensins

50
Q

Complement Proteins

A

Found inactive in plasma and are activated by a cascade that amplifies the signal
Innate immune response
3 pathways activate complement proteins

51
Q

Function of Complement Proteins

A

OIL
Opsonization = activated complement proteins act as opsonins
Inflammation mediator = activated complement proteins attract other immune cells to site of infection
Lysis = complement proteins cause lysis of bacteria

52
Q

Characteristics of Acquired Immunity

A

Recognize a specific foreign antigen or agent
Respond to then antigen by mounting an immune response to bring about their destruction
Remember the first encounter with the antigen

53
Q

Role of B Cells

A

Humoral component of acquired immunity
B cells binds a complementary antigen and undergoes clonal expansion where 2 types of B cells are formed:
- Plasma cells synthesize antibodies specific to the antigen. Freely circulates (humoral immunity)
- Memory cells are long-lived cells that remember the first exposure

54
Q

Humoral Immunity

A

Free circulating antibody molecules bing specific foreign antigens to form antigen-antibody or immune complexes
Neutralizes toxic materials produced by bacteria

55
Q

Cellular Immunity

A

immune response that does not involve antibodies but rather phagocytes and T-cells

56
Q

Types of T-cells

A

cytotoxic T-cells, helper T-cells, memory T-cells

57
Q

Function of T-cells

A

Recognize a foreign antigen
Respond to the foreign antigen by generating a cellular immune response
Remember the first encounter with a foreign antigen

58
Q

Major Histocompatibility Complex

A

Used for antigen presentation for T cells for antigen memory
MHC 1 = found in nucleated cells
MHC 2 = found specifically in antigen-presenting cells like macrophages and dendritic cells

59
Q

Immunological Memory

A

First/primary immune response = slow to develop and not a lot of antibodies is generated
Secondary immune response = magnitude of response is very quick because cells recognize the antigen
Practical for active immunity via vaccination and passive immunity via antibodies transferred from mother to fetus

60
Q

Hemostasis

A

Preventation of blood loss

Platelets are important in hemostasis

61
Q

Why is hemostasis necessary?

A

Body wants to maintain a state where blood can circulate smoothly with no unnecessary blood clots

62
Q

Pro-hemostatic factor

A

factors prevent blood loss

63
Q

Anti-hemostatic factor

A

factors that keep blood fluid

64
Q

Steps of Hemostasis

A
  1. Vasoconstriction (vascular spasm) - ruptured blood vessel contracts to minimize blood loss at site of cut
  2. Primary hemostasis/platelet plug formation - platelets aggregate to form a platelet plug (white thrombus)
  3. Secondary hemostasis/coagulation - blood clotting enzymes are activated to form a stronger, gel-like red thrombus
65
Q

Where do platelets come from?

A

originate from stem cells of bone marrow that become megakaryocytes. platelets are pinched off from the cytoplasmic part of megakaryocytes

66
Q

Structure of Platelets

A

Contain organelles but have no nucleus
Contain glycogen for energy
Contain actin and myosin
Contain surface glycoproteins which act as receptors

67
Q

Platelet granules

A

Alpha granules = contain large molecules like adhesive protein von Willebrand factor, growth factors, blood clotting factors
Dense granules = contain small molecules like ADP and ATP, calcium

68
Q

Platelet Plug Formation

A
  1. Platelets adhere to collagen using von Willebrand factor (factor forms a bridge between damaged vessel wall and the platelets)
  2. Activation of platelets - change shape, express various receptors, and secrete various substances
  3. Aggregation of platelets - they stick to each other to form a plug
    After the plug is formed, myosin and actin contract to tighten and seal the plug
69
Q

Role of Activated Platelets

A

Activated platelets secrete:

  • serotonin + ADP which acts as a vasoconstrictor and ADP further aggregates platelets
  • thromboxane A2 which promotes further aggregation and vasoconstriction
70
Q

Why does Platelet Plug not Continuously Expand?

A

Adjacent undamaged endothelial cells synthesize and release prostacyclin and nitric oxide which inhibit the spread of the platelet plug along undamaged endothelium

71
Q

Lipoxygenase Pathway

A

Arachidonic Acid is converted to leukotrienes by lipoxygenase which initiates swelling - inflammation

72
Q

Cyclooxygenase Pathway

A

Arachidonic acid is converted to prostaglandin by cyclooxygenase. Hemostatic responses vary - hemostasis

73
Q

COX 1

A

causes vasoconstriction - pro-hemostatic effect

74
Q

COX 2

A

causes vasodilation - anti-hemostatic effect

75
Q

Effect of Aspirin on Hemostasis

A

Aspirin blocks COX 1 and COX 2. COX 2 can overcome the inhibitory effects to continue producing prostaglandins to keep blood vessels open

76
Q

Secondary Hemostasis

A

Occurs following a platelet plug formation
Involves a cascade of enzyme activation
Activation of enzymes occurs by proteolytic cleavage
Formation of gel-like fibrin clot

77
Q

Factors in Blood Clotting

A 
Synthesized in liver
Factor 1 = fibrinogen 
Factor 2 = prothrombin 
Factor 3 = tissue thromboplastin
Factor 4 = calcium
78
Q

Key Step in Blood Clotting

A

Generation of the active thrombin enzyme

  1. Inactive enzyme prothrombin is converted to thrombin
  2. thrombin converted fibrinogen to fibrin
79
Q

Pathways and Common Activation Factor

A

Intrinsic pathway = inside blood vessel
Extrinsic pathway = outside blood vessel
Both meet the common activation factor “Xa”

80
Q

Factor Deficiencies

A

VII - severe bleeding
VIII - severe bleeding (hemophilia)
XI - moderate bleeding
XII - no bleeding in vivo, failure to clot in vitro

81
Q

Thrombin as an anti-coagulant

A

Thrombomodulin binds to thrombin and activates protein C

Activated protein C inhibits factors VIIIa and Va

82
Q

How does a clot not spread to where it isn’t needed?

A

Anticoagulants prevent clot formation

83
Q

Fibrinolysis

A

The breakdown of fibrin in a clot

84
Q

Plasminogen Activators

A

break down a clot
tPA converts inactive plasminogen to the active enzyme plasmin that breaks down the insoluble fibrin strands into soluble fibrin that can be dissolved

85
Q

Factors Leading to Abnormal Hemostasis

A

When pro-hemostatic factors fail
-problems with platelets
-problems with clotting factors
When anti-hemostatic factors fail
-deficiencies of natural anticoagulants and fibrinolytic factors may cause thrombosis
-acquired disorders may lead to formation of blood clots

86
Q

Blood types

A

A, B, AB, O

Antigens found on surface of red blood cells, antibodies found in blood

87
Q

Determination of blood types

A

Determined by which antigens are present

A mixture of a blood sample with anti-A or anti-B antibodies are tested for agglutination

88
Q

Agglutination

A

A process in which surface antigens on RBCs are bound to antibodies to form a clot following hemolysis

89
Q

Blood Donor Selection

A

a donors red blood cell antigens are matched with the recipient’s plasma antibodies

90
Q

Universal Donor

A

Type O

91
Q

Universal Recipient

A

Type AB

Physiology 210 (12 decks)

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