Central Dogma Flashcards
carries the instructions necessary for the growth, development, functioning, and reproduction of cells and organisms.
Genetic material
central dogma has 3 steps
replication, transcription, translation
essential for the creation of genetic material and the expression of genetic information, making them fundamental to the functioning of all living organisms.
central dogma
the entirety of all our genetic material
genome
In this project, for the first time, they were able to establish and read the sequences in an entire human person. It was a significant time because the results allowed the patient to know a lot of important information about the patient like ethnicity, possible genetic conditions (possible because the gene may not be expressed).
Human genome project
The most organized system that our bodies have designed to organize our DNA is called
chromosome
chromo means
colored
soma means
body
It is called a colored body because, when scientists looked at cells under the microscope, the only visible structures were the colored strands of chromosomes.
chromosomes
how many chromosomes does a human have
46 chromosomes (23 pairs)
first 22 pairs of our chromosomes
autosomes
last pair of our chromosomes
allosome
smallest structure of chromosomes
DNA strand
→ The proteins that always clump together are called…
histones
these are responsible for coiling our DNA strands. They bind to the DNA and help organize it into a compact structure within the nucleus of a cell
histones
After coiling around histones, the DNA forms larger coils, eventually organizing into structures known as
chromatin
short arm
p arm
long arm
q arm
the binding structure in the middle of a chromosome, but it is not literally in the center
centromere
protection of the ends of the chromosome arms
telomere
When the telomere gets damaged and the chromosome arm starts to be deleted.
deletion
female allosome
XX (long-long arms)
male allosome
XY (long-short
They will examine your nucleus and analyze your chromosomes, laying them out. It is an imaging procedure that shows images. You’ll observe the physical characteristics, such as the parallelism of the genes, if they are aligned, the size to see if the pairs are of the same size, and the number of chromosomes, as there might be instances of trisomy and monosomy.
Karyotype
karyo means
nucleus
Mismatch in size of the pairs is only acceptable for the
23rd pair
how many chromosome pairs does a dog have
39 pairs
how many pairs does a human have
23 pairs
how many pairs does rice have
12 pairs
how many pairs does a fruit fly have?
4 pairs
Replication of DNA
replication
DNA to RNA
transcription
RNA to proteins
translation
It doesn’t have something to do in making (central dogma) what we are but it is simply a biomolecule that is important as well
proteins
These processes make
things more efficient. It’s not just about speed, but also about reducing stress on the body. It’s about completing tasks quickly and minimizing fatigue.
enzymes
proteins that help us transport
transport proteins
Specific sequences, areas, and points are supposed to align with each other. They align because they belong to the same category.
genes
Inside genes are long DNA strands consisting of nucleotides. The order of nucleotides in a gene determines the code for a specific polypeptide chain.
nucleotide sequences
It is called this translation because RNA
and proteins have their own language. For example, RNA’s language is composed of nucleotide sequences such as GCU. When you translate this sequence into the language of proteins, it corresponds to the amino acid alanine.
translation
are the monomers of
nucleic acids.
nucleotides
purines
adenine and guanine
pyrimidines
thymine and cytosine
these have two fused aromatic rings
purines
these have single aromatic rings
pyrimidines
adenine and thymine pair via
two hydrogen bonds
cytosine and guanine pair via
three hydrogen bonds
- refers to a sugar molecule
Refers to a sugar molecule
with five carbons.
pentose sugar
parent strand
existing strand
blueprint
template strand
Goal: Replicate, reproduce, duplicate, and recreate
- Parent DNA unzips in order to create new daughter DNA
- To generate additional DNA strands from existing ones, we do so with the intention that some may remain within our bodies to act as blueprints, while others will undergo transcription to produce RNA and synthesize proteins.
dan replication
→ Each DNA is half-old and half-new.
→ First strand is from original parent
DNA, Second strand is freshly assembled
semiconservative replication
daughter strand
newly synthesized strand from the parent strand
complementary strand
→ Substitution
→ deletion/insertion
→ play a crucial role in correcting various types of mutations, including substitutions and deletions/insertions. Mutations of these kinds can lead to potential changes in the physical makeup of an organism.
DNA repair enzymes
Errors are normal and natural, as our bodies can naturally repair them with the help of DNA repair enzymes. However, when errors eventually accumulate excessively, it no longer makes sense. In minimal quantities, it’s acceptable because you can still make sense of it, but if the errors become more numerous, it can be dangerous
gene mutations
Responsible for straightening the strand
topoisomerase
unzipping enzyme
→ is the key player in replication,
constituting the main event by breaking the hydrogen bonds formed by the nitrogenous bases. Its movement follows the path set by the topoisomerase.
helicase
→ It’s like a fork because it’s shaped like the letter “Y.”
→ These are the freshly separated strands.
Replication fork
This is to prevent the strands from recombining, and this separation is permanent.
single stranded binding proteins
→ 3’to5’
→ continuous
→ This strand is synthesized
continuously from the 3’ to 5’
direction.
leading strand
→ 5’to3’
→ discontinuous
lagging strand
→ building enzyme
→ responsible for constructing the
complementary partner strand.
→ It always follows the movement
from 3’ to 5’ and starts in the lowest position, moving to higher positions, and then reverses direction, moving from higher to lower positions.
DNA polymerase
→ starting enzyme
→ The starting enzyme and starting point in DNA replication are established by an enzyme called DNA Primase.
primers
creates the starting point or Primer
DNA primase
The middle region between two primers forms a gap due to the freshly separated strands.
→ This gap is filled by short
synthesized fragments called…. on the lagging strand during DNA replication.
Okazaki fragments
→ gluing enzyme
→ It is responsible for joining or
“gluing” together the Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand during DNA replication.
→ It also double-checks the freshly created strand to ensure accuracy, and if any errors are found, DNA repair enzymes are engaged to correct them.
ligase
→ DNA repair enzyme
→ It functions by cleaving or cutting
DNA strands, which is crucial for repairing damaged DNA or removing unwanted DNA segments during processes like DNA replication or DNA repair.
nuclease
- Goal: Transcribe, write out, copy
- Building rna strand from an
existing dna strand
DNA transcription
Body’s protection against foreign elements
antibody
catalyzes reactions
enzymes
transmits signals
messenger proteins
structure and support for cells
structure proteins
binds and carries atoms and small molecule
transport/storage proteins
An essential enzyme involved in gene expression. it is more versatile as it encompasses all the necessary enzymatic activities required for RNA synthesis.
RNA polymerase
The initial step in transcription involves the unwinding of the DNA double helix by
RNA polymerase
RNA polymerase allows the template strand in what direction
3’ to 5’
Serves as our blueprint where we encode the bases of our RNA strand, guiding its direction from 3’ to 5’. It acts independently and, with the assistance of RNA Polymerase, constructs the blueprint strand.
Template strand
It delivers the bases needed to pair with the RNA
NTP (nitrogen triphosphate)
This is one of the two strands of DNA that serves as a template for mRNA synthesis during transcription. It is called this because its sequence corresponds directly to the sequence of the mRNA
Coding strand
This portion is a combination half and half, half DNA and half RNA. This is temporary/
RNA-DNA hybrid region
Here, RNA polymerase binds to the promoter region of the template strand.
Initiation
The promoter region consists of four bases: Thymine, Adenine, Thymine, Adenine
Initiation
This signifies the starting point of initiation
TATA box
Here, RNA polymerase performs its job of creating the RNA strand.
Elongation
Initiates transcription. Helicase and DNA polymerase in one.
RNA polymerase
This sequence emits signals indicating the end of the process of transcription
terminator
3 requirements before leaving the nucleus
Processing, Quality-check, Packaging
You must undergo processing to ensure that you are a mature and functional RNA molecule. This may involve modifications such as capping, splicing, and polyadenylation.
Processing
Your quality must be ensured to meet the standards for travel. This involves ensuring that you are free from errors, mutations, or any other defects that could compromise your function.
Quality-check
You need to be properly packaged and escorted to the exit. This involves binding with specific proteins that facilitate your transport through the nuclear pore complex and guide you safely to the ribosome.
packagning
→ The RNA molecules are very young, in the form of pre-mRNA.
→ This process is called maturation, where you allow yourself to mature a little bit. This involves removing unnecessary bases because not all of the codes are essential for the protein that will be produced.
Splicing
→ Large complex of snRNPs which assemble with pre-mRNA to
achieve
→ RNA splicing
→ It consists of a variety of proteins and several small RNAs that
recognize the splice sites.
→ This complex assists in removing unnecessary elements.
Spliceosome
Are removed after transcription
Introns
Remain after transcription
Exons
→ are catalytic RNA molecules that function as enzymes and can
splice RNA
→ Can be found inside the
spliceosome
Ribozymes
→ Any process, aside from splicing, that alters the sequence of an RNA transcript, causing it to deviate from the sequence of the DNA template and potentially resulting in specific point mutations, is known as RNA editing.
→ This process involves double-checking and proofreading errors, correcting any discrepancies that may arise.
Editing
Any process, aside from splicing, that alters the sequence of an RNA transcript, causing it to deviate from the sequence of the DNA template and potentially resulting in specific point mutations, is known as ___.
This process involves double-checking and proofreading errors, correcting any discrepancies that may arise.
RNA editing
Exports mRNA out of the nucleus. Physical protection involves adding coverings to the ends of the RNA strand to prepare it for travel. These shields protect the RNA from potential damage or degradation.
Polyadenylation
Cap that consists guanine
5’ cap
Cap that consist of about 250 adenines. “Poly A tail”
3’ tail
In the context of the central dogma, this serves as the primary template for synthesizing proteins by ribosomes. It is the central player, holding the blueprint for protein synthesis.
messenger RNA (coding mRNA)
Transfers specific amino acids to growing polypeptide chains at the ribosomal site of protein synthesis during translation
Transfer RNA
A component of ribosomes
Ribosomal RNA
Regulates gene activity
Micro RNA
Translate codons into amino acid sequence
DNA translation
Once the mRNA arrives at the
ribosome, it cannot simply land anywhere. ___ provides signals indicating the precise landing site for the mRNA. It guides the mRNA to the exact location where it should dock for protein synthesis to occur
rRNA signals
Consist of 3 letters
Codons
An ____ is a trinucleotide sequence located at one end of a transfer RNA (tRNA) molecule,
anticodon
These molecules facilitate the transfer of amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain in a ribosome
tRNA
tRNA carries out this translation by carrying the corresponding amino acids and connecting them to the growing ______
polypeptide chain
Proteins known as ____
factors facilitate the entry of the large ribosomal subunit, completing the translation initiation complex. Starting point.
Initiation
During this stage, amino acids are added one by one to the growing
chain
Elongation
Arrival of TRNA carrying of amino acids. Holds the tRNA that carries the growing polypeptide chain
P site
Processing and lengthening of the polypeptide chain
A site
Ending point. The A site accepts the protein called release factor.
Termination
Exit where discharged tRNAs leaved the ribosome
E site
Stop codons
UAG, UAA, UGA
Once they are detected, the process of translation concludes
Release factor
These proteins are designed to function within the cytosol, the fluid-filled region of the cell. They are exclusively retained within the cell, rather than being secreted or transported elsewhere.
Free ribosomes
You need the assistance of
another organelle, which is the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Ribosomes bind to the endoplasmic reticulum because they are synthesizing proteins destined for export, rather than for organelles within the cell.
Bound ribosome
it will attract the ribosome so that it can bind to the endoplasmic reticulum
Signal recognition particle (SRP)
They not only regulate our
emotions, but also enable proper psychological functioning, influencing how we perceive and feel. Additionally, they regulate physiological activities within us, both anatomically and psychologically.
Proteins as hormones
These nucleic acids retain the
ability to enter the nucleus, as they are still nucleic acids. Upon entering the nucleus, they initiate the entire central dogma process, involving DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis through transcription and translation. This alteration of cellular activities consequently impacts the human form, influencing physical appearance, emotions, and psychological functioning.
Steroidal hormones
plays a significant role in
the changes that occur during puberty, influencing the development of secondary sexual characteristics such as facial hair growth, deepening of the voice, and muscle mass increase. These changes typically take several years to fully manifest and are not immediate.
Testosterone
influences both how you
feel and how you look by altering its levels. These fluctuationsinestrogen levels can lead to changes in mood, emotions, and physical appearance. It typically takes about a month for the effects of estrogen to increase or decrease significantly.
Estrogen
When you are stressed, increased ____ is released into your bloodstream.
Cortisol
A type of hormone made by the body that plays a role in the menstrual cycle and pregnancy.
Progesterone
Is a hormone that helps regulate your blood pressure by managing the levels of Sodium and potassium in your blood
Aldosterone
These are endocrine hormones that play a crucial role in regulating glucose levels and glycolysis. They help maintain blood sugar levels.
Insulin and Glucagon
Do not enter the nucleus but rather remain outside in the cytosol. They have a very short duration of action since their effects are primary due to activation.
Non-steroidal hormones
We administer _____ with the hope of introducing cells to foreign agents, aiming for the immune system to adapt and develop mechanisms to either eliminate or coexist with these invaders.
Vaccinations
You receive RNA strands, which are then released into the ribosomes. Here, the ribosomes convert the RNA into proteins.
Non-replicating vaccine
You are injected with mRNA, which is then released into the cytosol. This mRNA has the ability to self-amplify, meaning it can replicate itself to produce more mRNA.
Self amplifying vaccine
Starting codon
AUG
