Cellular Regulation Exam 3 Flashcards
Cellular Adaptation
Cellular adaptation is __________ structural/functional response to both normal or physiologic conditions.
Cells can adapt to physiologic demands or stress to maintain a steady state called ____________
reversible
homeostasis
Cellular Adaptation
The most significant adaptive changes include:
_trophy
_____rophy
_____plasia
____plasia
atrophy
hypertrophy
hyperplasia
metaplasia
Cellular Adaptation
______ is a decrease in cellular size caused by aging, *disuse or lack of blood supply, hormonal stimulation, or neural stimulation.
The amounts of er, mitochondria, and microfilaments __________.
The mechanisms include decreased protein synthesis and/or increased protein *catabolism
Atrophy
decrease
Cellular Adaptation
___________ is an increase in the size of cells caused by increased work demands or hormonal stimulation.
The amounts of protein in the plasma membrane, endoplasmic reticulum, microfilaments, and mitochondria ______.
Hypertrophy
increase
Cellular Adaptation
___________ is an increase in the number of cells caused by an increased rate of cellular division.
Normal ___________ is stimulated by hormones or the need to replace lost tissues.
Hyperplasia
Cellular Adaptation
Types of Hyperplasia
____________ hyperplasia would be the regeneration of an organ after part of it is lost (like the liver might do after part of it is lost)
Compensatory
Cellular Adaptation
Types of Hyperplasia
________ hyperplasia occurs when cells proliferate (divide) due to hormonal stimulation (like the uterus each month or during pregnancy)
Hormonal
Cellular Adaptation
Types of Hyperplasia
__________ is abnormal proliferation (cell dividing) of normal cells – usually in response to excessive hormonal stimulation or growth factors on target cells
Pathologic
Cellular Adaptation
__________ is the reversible replacement of one mature cell type by another less mature cell type.
Metaplasia
Cellular Adaptation
_________, or atypical hyperplasia, is an abnormal change in the size, shape, and organization of mature tissue cells. It is not considered a true adaptational change but rather atypical.
Dysplasia
Cellular Injury
Cell cycle
- __ phase: period between M phase and S phase
- __ phase: DNA is synthesized
- __ phase: RNA and protein synthesis
- __ phase: mitosis – includes nuclear and cytoplasmic division of cells
G1 phase
S phase
G2 phase
M phase
Cellular ______ occurs if the cell is unable to maintain homeostasis. Injured cells may recover or die. Injury is caused by lack of _____, ____ radicals, caustic or toxic chemicals, infectious agents, inflammatory and immune responses, genetic factors, ____________ nutrients, or physical trauma from many causes.
injury
oxygen
free
insufficient
Cellular Injury
Six biochemical themes are important to cell injury:
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) depletion - \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ATP = more sodium = cell swells
mitochondrial ______
oxygen and oxygen-derived free radicals
_______ damage
protein _______ defects
increased intracellular calcium and loss of calcium ______ state.
decreased
damage
membrane
folding
steady
Cellular Injury
The sequence of events leading to cell _____ is commonly:
Decreased adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production
Failure of NA-K Pump
Cellular swelling
Detachment of ribosomes from the endoplasmic reticulum
Cessation of protein synthesis
Mitochondrial swelling as a result of calcium accumulation
Vacuolation
Leakage of digestive enzymes from lysosomes
Autodigestion of intracellular structures
Lysis of the plasma membrane
Death
death
Cellular Injury
The initial insult in hypoxic injury is usually _______.
________ is the cessation of blood flow into vessels that supply the cell with oxygen and nutrients.
ischemia
Cellular Injury
Hypoxia is lack of __________ oxygen
Anoxia is _____ lack of oxygen
________ is insufficient blood flow to tissues, which may result in lack of oxygen and therefore subsequent cell injury
sufficient
total
Ischemia
Cellular Injury
____ ________ cause cellular injury because they have an unpaired electron that makes the molecule unstable.
To stabilize itself, the molecule gives up an electron to another molecule or steals one. Therefore it forms injurious chemical bonds with proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates—key molecules in membranes and nucleic acids that make up DNA and RNA
Free radicals
Cellular Injury
The damaging effects of free radicals, especially activated oxygen species, called oxidative stress, include
- lipid peroxidation (damage to lipid cells)
- alteration of ion _____ and transport mechanisms
- fragmentation of ___
- damage to mitochondria so calcium that the mitochondria was storing is released into the cytosol
pumps
DNA
Cellular Injury
Restoration of oxygen can cause additional injury, called _______ injury. _______ injury results from the generation of highly reactive oxygen intermediates, increasing cellular oxidative stress and damage.
reperfusion
Cellular Injury
The initial insult in chemical injury is damage to or destruction of the plasma ________.
Examples of chemical agents that cause cellular injury are carbon tetrachlorid, lead, carbon monoxide, and ethyl alcohol.
membrane
Cellular Injury
________ injuries are caused by a failure of cells to receive or utilize oxygen. These injuries can be grouped into four general categories:
___________ – oxygen failing to reach the blood
_____________ – compression and closure of blood vessels and air passages → cerebral hypoxia or anoxia secondary to the cessation of blood flow
_________– prevention of the delivery of oxygen to the tissues or blocking of its utilization
_________ – alteration of oxygen delivery to tissues resulting from the inhalation of fluid
Asphyxial
Suffocation
Strangulation
Chemical
Drowning
Cellular Injury
Activation of __________ and the _______ response, which occurs after cellular injury or infection, involves powerful biochemicals and proteins capable of damaging normal cells.
inflammation
immune
Cellular Injury
Deprivation of essential nutrients can cause cellular injury by altering cellular structure and function, particularly of ________ mechanisms, chromosomes, the nucleus, and DNA.
transport
Manifestations of Cellular Injury
An important manifestation of cell injury is the resultant metabolic disturbances of intracellular ____________ of abnormal amounts of various substances. Two categories of accumulations are
- _______ cellular substances, such as water, proteins, lipids, and carbohydrate excesses
- ________ substances, either endogenous, such as from abnormal metabolism, or exogenous, like a virus
accumulation
Normal
Abnormal
Manifestations of Cellular Injury
Most accumulations are attributed to four types of mechanisms, all abnormal:
- Endogenous substance is produced in ______ or at an increased rate
- An abnormal substance, often the result of a ______ gene, accumulates
- An endogenous substance is ___ effectively catabolized
- A harmful exogenous substance ___________ because of inhalation, ingestion, or infection
excess
mutated
not
accumulates
Manifestations of Cellular Injury
Cellular ________ the accumulation of excessive water in the cell, is caused by the failure of ________ mechanisms and is a sign of many types of cellular injury.
Cellular swelling
transport
Manifestations of Cellular Injury
_____________ of organic substances—lipids, carbohydrates, glycogen, proteins, pigments—are caused by disorders in which
(a) cellular uptake of the substance _______ the cell’s capacity to catabolize (digest) or use it or
(b) cellular anabolism (synthesis) of the substance _______ the cell’s capacity to use or secrete it. .
Accumulations
exceeds
Cellular Death
________ is known as regulated or programmed cell death, characterized by “dropping off” of cellular fragments called apoptotic bodies.
Apoptosis
Cellular Death
There are four major types of necroses:
___________: Results from hypoxia caused by severe ischemia or hypoxia caused by chemical injury; occurs primarily in the kidneys, heart and adrenal glands
____________: Results from ischemic injury to neurons and glial cells in the brain; cells are digested by their own hydrolases
_______: Usually results from tuberculous pulmonary infection; tissues resemble clumped cheese in that they are soft and granular
___ necrosis: Cellular dissolution caused by powerful enzymes (lipases) that occur in the breast and pancreas
__________: Refer to death of tissue and results from severe hypoxic injury; occurs in the connective tissue like muscles and cellular membranes
Coagulative
Liquefactive
Caseous
Fat
Gangrenous
Cellular Death
________ means “eating of self” and as a recycling factor it is a self-destructive process and a survival mechanism. When cells are starved or nutrient-deprived, the _________ process institutes cannibalization and recycles the digested contents.
________ can maintain cellular metabolism under starvation conditions and remove damaged organelles under stress conditions, improving the survival of cells.
Autophagy
autophagic
_______ death is death of the entire organism. Postmortem change is diffuse and does not involve the inflammatory response.
Manifestations of _______ death include
- cessation of respiration and circulation
- gradual lowering of body ___________
- pupil dilation
- loss of elasticity
- transparency in the ____
- ______ stiffening
- skin discoloration
Somatic death
temperature
skin
muscle
Somatic Death
___________ - process of health cells being transformed into cancer cells
- Benign vs Malignant Tumors
Benign Tumor
- Grows slowly
- Well-defined capsule
- Not invasive
- Well differentiated (looks like the tissue it arose from)
- Does not metastasize
- Normal size and shape
Malignant Tumor
- Grows rapidly
- Lacks a capsule
- Invades nearby blood vessels, lymphatics, and surrounding structures
- Loss of differentiation (anaplasia)
- Can spread far beyond the tissue of origin (metastasis)
- Marked variability of size and shape (pleomorphic)
Oncogenesis
Somatic Death
A _________ is a tumor in the epithelial tissues.
Type of cancer that originated in cells that make up the skin of tissues that line organs.
Open sore, red patches, scars
carcinoma
Somatic Death
An ______________ is a tumor in the ductal or glandular structures (like mammary glands in the breast).
Type of cancer that starts in the glands that line the inside of the organs
Most common type of colon cancer
Most breast cancers are this
Commonly found in the esophagus
adenocarcinoma
Somatic Death
_________ are tumors in the lymph tissue.
Lymphomas
Somatic Death
_________ are tumors of blood-forming cells.
Four Types
ALL - Least common type, most common in children
AML - Most common type in adults
CLL
CML - found mostly in adults
Leukemias
Somatic Death
_________ in situ is early stage growth that is localized to the epithelium and has not penetrated the local basement membrane or the surrounding stroma.
Carcinoma
Somatic Death
_____ markers are specific biochemical markers of tumors. They are substances produced by both benign and malignant cells and are either present in or on tumor cells or found in blood, spinal fluid, or urine.
_____ markers include:
- hormones
- enzymes
- genes
- antigens
- antibodies
Tumor
Somatic Death
Initiators of Cancer:
Nicotine
- Nicotine
- Alcohol
- \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
- Helicobacor pylori
- Oncogenic viruses (they turn things on/off inappropriately)
- Inflammation
- Pro-inflammatory cytokines lead to increased reactive oxygen species that damage DNA and increase risk for mutations that may cause cancer
- Decreased immunity
- \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
- \_\_\_\_\_\_\_/inactivity
Hormones
Chemotherapy
Obesity
Somatic Death
________ cancer is cancer that occurs in people who do not have an inherited change in their DNA; they do not have a predisposition that was inherited. This presents _____ birth.
Sporadic
after
Somatic Death
Causes of _______ Cancer:
- Creation of an oncogene
- Proto-oncogene is a gene that promotes cell proliferation in a healthy cell.
- An oncogene is a mutated proto-oncogene that over-promotes cell growth
- __________ of a tumor suppression gene
- Malfunction of a ____ taker (repair) gene
- Malfunction of telomeres
- Usually they shrink as healthy cells reproduce, so they shrink as people age but in cancer cells, they do not shrink so the cell can replicate endlessly
Genetic
Inhibition
care
Somatic Death
Multiple ___ Theory (must have all six)
- Self sufficiency in growth signals
- Does not need other signals to decide to grow - Insensitivity to antigrowth signals
- Evading apoptosis
- Limitless replicative potential
- Telomeres do not shrink - Sustained angiogenesis
- Keep generating more blood supply - Tissue invasion and metastasis
- Not encapsulated and spreads
Hit
Somatic Death
________________ is bone marrow suppression. This occurs as a complication from cancer/cancer therapy. It leads to:
______: Low hemoglobin level that causes paleness, weakness, and fatigue
_______________: Greatly decreased thrombocyte level, which causes a risk for bleeding
__________/neutropenia -Low leukocyte count (especially neutrophils) so there is an increased risk for infection
Myelosuppression
Anemia
Thrombocytopenia
Leukopenia
Somatic Death
Caution Signs: refer patient if one of these is occurring:
- Change in ______ or bladder habits
- A sore throat
- Unusual bleeding or discharge
- Thickening or ____
- Indigestion or dysphagia
- Obvious change in wart/mole (ABCDE)
- Nagging _____ or hoarseness
bowel
lump
cough
Somatic Death
Mole Assessment
- Asymmetrical shape
- Border ____________
- Color changes/more than - 1 shade/black
- Diameter greater than _ mm
- Evolution
irregularity
6
Somatic Death
Mole Assessment
- Asymmetrical shape
- Border ____________
- _____ changes/more than 1 shade/black
- Diameter greater than _ mm
- Evolution
irregularity
6
Color
Genetics
An ______ is one of the variant forms of a gene at a particular locus.
allele
Genetics
The _____ is the position along a chromosome that a gene occupies
locus
Genetics
_____________ is when two alleles are not identical; the dominant allele will determine the phenotype.
Heterogeneous
phenotype
Genetics
When two alleles are the same, they are said to be __________.
homogenous
Genetics
The composition of genes at a given locus is known as the ________. The outward appearance of an individual, which is the result of both ________ and environment, is the phenotype
genotype
Genetics
__________ traits are traits that result from several genes acting together.
Polygenic
Genetics
______________ traits are traits that are influenced by the environment.
Multifactorial
Genetics
_____________ is the process in which messenger RNA is synthesized from a DNA template by RNA polymerase.
- RNA polymerase binds to a promoter site, which is a sequence of DNA that specifies the beginning of a gene
- Uracil is the base used in RNA rather than thymine, so uracil binds with the adenine of the DNA template
- In eukaryotes, many RNA sequences are removed by nuclear enzymes, and the remaining sequences are spliced together to form the functional mRNA that migrates to the cytoplasm. The excised sequences are called introns and the sequences that are left to code for proteins are called exons.
Transcription
Genetics
_________ are inherited alterations of genetic materials.
Mutations
Genetics
________ are things that increase the frequency of mutations
- Radiation
- chemicals
Mutagens
Genetics
________ occurs when cells of a multiple of the normal number of chromosomes (multiples of 23).
Haploid (in gametes)
and
diploid (in somatic cells) cells are euploid forms
- When a euploid cell has more than the diploid number it is a _________ cell
- _________ occurs when a zygote has three copies of each chromosome (69 chromosomes)
-_________ occurs when there are four copies of each chromosome (92 chromosomes)
Euploidy
polyploid
Triploidy - 69
Tetraploidy - 92
Genetics - Image on Cellular Regulation Part II
___________ occurs when a cell does not contain a multiple of 23 chromosomes; the cell may have three copies of one chromosome (trisomy) or the presence of only one copy of given chromosome in a diploid cell (monosomy)
Usually caused by nondisjunction, which is failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate normally during meiosis or mitosis
____ Syndrome is a form of aneuploidy; it is trisomy 21. Patients with this aneuploidy have mental retardation, low nasal bridge, and protruding tongue. Risk increases as maternal age increases.
________ Syndrome is a sex chromosome aneuploidy that is characterized by a female with only one X chromosome
_______ _ is when a female as more than three X chromosome; symptoms worsen with each additional X.
___________ Syndrome is when a male has more than one X chromosome (XXY or XXXY)
Aneuploidy
Down Syndrome
Turner’s Syndrome
Trisomy X
Klinefelter syndrome
Genetics
_____________ is the interchanging of material between nonhomologous chromosomes
Ex. exchanging between chromosome 1 and chromosome 9
Translocation
Genetics - Image on Cellular Regulation Part II
Autosomal ________: only one allele is required for observable effect, there is a 50% chance of recurrence in offspring, males and females are effected equally, generations are not _______
____________ Disease: neurologic disorder whose main features are progressive dementia and increasingly uncontrollable limb movements; usually the onset is later between 25 and 45
Dominant
skipped
Huntington’s
Genetics - Image on Cellular Regulation Part II
Incomplete __________ occurs when an individual has the genes but the gene is not expressed.
penetrance
Genetics - Image on Cellular Regulation Part II
Autosomal _________ traits affect males and females equally and in heterogeneous (carrier) parents the offspring have __% chance of being affected
______ ________ is an autosomal recessive disease that is more common in Northern Europeans
______ ____ disease is an autosomal recessive disease that affects hemoglobin shape and is more common in African Americans
___ _____ is an autosomal recessive disorder that is more common in Jewish patients
recessive
25%
Cystic fibrosis
Sickle cell
Tay Sachs
Genetics
X linked disorders come from the X chromosome so they affect _____ more often than _______
________ Muscular Dystrophy is an x-linked recessive disorder caused by mutations in the dystrophin gene – the patient has muscle weakness that worsens over the years, difficulty walking, and large calves
males
females
Duchenne
Most common cancer diagnosed in women
Often begins with the cells in the milk-producing ducts
Breast Cancer
Affects more than 200,000 American annually
Leading cause of cancer deaths in the US among women and men
Lung Cancer
There are no early warning signs
Symptoms appear once a tumor cause the gland to swell or cancers spreads beyond
Prostate Cancer
Most often begins as small noncancerous clumps of cells called adenomatous polyps - these polyps can then develop into _____ _____
Colon Cancer
Rare kidney cancer that primarily effect children
Often affect age 3-4
Wilm’s Tumor
Rare type of cancer that grow in the connective tissue
Main types: Soft and Bone
Painless lumps cause problems with breathing
Sacroma
Most common type of bone cancer in children and teens
tends to occur at the ends of long bones
caused by an error in the child’s DNA or genetic code
broken bones not cause by normal events such as falls
Osteosarcoma
Melanoma:
Fair skinned
Can be cured if treated early
Skin Cancer
Histologic Grading
To clinically classify extent/spread use term staging
Staging: _ - cancer in situ _ - tumor limited to tissue of origin _ - limited local spread _ - extensive local/regional spread _ - metasasis
Diagnostic
