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Pathophysiology > Cellular Regulation Exam 3 > Flashcards

Cellular Regulation Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Cellular Adaptation

Cellular adaptation is __________ structural/functional response to both normal or physiologic conditions.

Cells can adapt to physiologic demands or stress to maintain a steady state called ____________

A

reversible

homeostasis

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2
Q

Cellular Adaptation

The most significant adaptive changes include:

_trophy
_____rophy
_____plasia
____plasia

A

atrophy
hypertrophy
hyperplasia
metaplasia

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3
Q

Cellular Adaptation

______ is a decrease in cellular size caused by aging, *disuse or lack of blood supply, hormonal stimulation, or neural stimulation.

The amounts of er, mitochondria, and microfilaments __________.

The mechanisms include decreased protein synthesis and/or increased protein *catabolism

A

Atrophy

decrease

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4
Q

Cellular Adaptation

___________ is an increase in the size of cells caused by increased work demands or hormonal stimulation.

The amounts of protein in the plasma membrane, endoplasmic reticulum, microfilaments, and mitochondria ______.

A

Hypertrophy

increase

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5
Q

Cellular Adaptation

___________ is an increase in the number of cells caused by an increased rate of cellular division.

Normal ___________ is stimulated by hormones or the need to replace lost tissues.

A

Hyperplasia

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6
Q

Cellular Adaptation

Types of Hyperplasia

____________ hyperplasia would be the regeneration of an organ after part of it is lost (like the liver might do after part of it is lost)

A

Compensatory

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7
Q

Cellular Adaptation

Types of Hyperplasia

________ hyperplasia occurs when cells proliferate (divide) due to hormonal stimulation (like the uterus each month or during pregnancy)

A

Hormonal

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8
Q

Cellular Adaptation

Types of Hyperplasia

__________ is abnormal proliferation (cell dividing) of normal cells – usually in response to excessive hormonal stimulation or growth factors on target cells

A

Pathologic

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9
Q

Cellular Adaptation

__________ is the reversible replacement of one mature cell type by another less mature cell type.

A

Metaplasia

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10
Q

Cellular Adaptation

_________, or atypical hyperplasia, is an abnormal change in the size, shape, and organization of mature tissue cells. It is not considered a true adaptational change but rather atypical.

A

Dysplasia

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11
Q

Cellular Injury

Cell cycle

  1. __ phase: period between M phase and S phase
  2. __ phase: DNA is synthesized
  3. __ phase: RNA and protein synthesis
  4. __ phase: mitosis – includes nuclear and cytoplasmic division of cells
A

G1 phase

S phase

G2 phase

M phase

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12
Q

Cellular ______ occurs if the cell is unable to maintain homeostasis. Injured cells may recover or die. Injury is caused by lack of _____, ____ radicals, caustic or toxic chemicals, infectious agents, inflammatory and immune responses, genetic factors, ____________ nutrients, or physical trauma from many causes.

A

injury

oxygen

free

insufficient

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13
Q

Cellular Injury

Six biochemical themes are important to cell injury:

adenosine triphosphate (ATP) depletion 
-  \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ ATP = more sodium = cell swells

mitochondrial ______

oxygen and oxygen-derived free radicals

_______ damage

protein _______ defects

increased intracellular calcium and loss of calcium ______ state.

A

decreased

damage

membrane

folding

steady

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14
Q

Cellular Injury

The sequence of events leading to cell _____ is commonly:

Decreased adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production

Failure of NA-K Pump

Cellular swelling

Detachment of ribosomes from the endoplasmic reticulum

Cessation of protein synthesis

Mitochondrial swelling as a result of calcium accumulation

Vacuolation

Leakage of digestive enzymes from lysosomes

Autodigestion of intracellular structures

Lysis of the plasma membrane

Death

A

death

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15
Q

Cellular Injury

The initial insult in hypoxic injury is usually _______.

________ is the cessation of blood flow into vessels that supply the cell with oxygen and nutrients.

A

ischemia

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16
Q

Cellular Injury

Hypoxia is lack of __________ oxygen

Anoxia is _____ lack of oxygen

________ is insufficient blood flow to tissues, which may result in lack of oxygen and therefore subsequent cell injury

A

sufficient

total

Ischemia

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17
Q

Cellular Injury

____ ________ cause cellular injury because they have an unpaired electron that makes the molecule unstable.

To stabilize itself, the molecule gives up an electron to another molecule or steals one. Therefore it forms injurious chemical bonds with proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates—key molecules in membranes and nucleic acids that make up DNA and RNA

A

Free radicals

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18
Q

Cellular Injury

The damaging effects of free radicals, especially activated oxygen species, called oxidative stress, include

  • lipid peroxidation (damage to lipid cells)
  • alteration of ion _____ and transport mechanisms
  • fragmentation of ___
  • damage to mitochondria so calcium that the mitochondria was storing is released into the cytosol
A

pumps

DNA

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19
Q

Cellular Injury

Restoration of oxygen can cause additional injury, called _______ injury. _______ injury results from the generation of highly reactive oxygen intermediates, increasing cellular oxidative stress and damage.

A

reperfusion

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20
Q

Cellular Injury

The initial insult in chemical injury is damage to or destruction of the plasma ________.

Examples of chemical agents that cause cellular injury are carbon tetrachlorid, lead, carbon monoxide, and ethyl alcohol.

A

membrane

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21
Q

Cellular Injury

________ injuries are caused by a failure of cells to receive or utilize oxygen. These injuries can be grouped into four general categories:

___________ – oxygen failing to reach the blood

_____________ – compression and closure of blood vessels and air passages → cerebral hypoxia or anoxia secondary to the cessation of blood flow

_________– prevention of the delivery of oxygen to the tissues or blocking of its utilization

_________ – alteration of oxygen delivery to tissues resulting from the inhalation of fluid

A

Asphyxial

Suffocation

Strangulation

Chemical

Drowning

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22
Q

Cellular Injury

Activation of __________ and the _______ response, which occurs after cellular injury or infection, involves powerful biochemicals and proteins capable of damaging normal cells.

A

inflammation

immune

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23
Q

Cellular Injury

Deprivation of essential nutrients can cause cellular injury by altering cellular structure and function, particularly of ________ mechanisms, chromosomes, the nucleus, and DNA.

A

transport

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24
Q

Manifestations of Cellular Injury

An important manifestation of cell injury is the resultant metabolic disturbances of intracellular ____________ of abnormal amounts of various substances. Two categories of accumulations are

  • _______ cellular substances, such as water, proteins, lipids, and carbohydrate excesses
  • ________ substances, either endogenous, such as from abnormal metabolism, or exogenous, like a virus
A

accumulation

Normal

Abnormal

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25
Q

Manifestations of Cellular Injury

Most accumulations are attributed to four types of mechanisms, all abnormal:

  • Endogenous substance is produced in ______ or at an increased rate
  • An abnormal substance, often the result of a ______ gene, accumulates
  • An endogenous substance is ___ effectively catabolized
  • A harmful exogenous substance ___________ because of inhalation, ingestion, or infection
A

excess

mutated

not

accumulates

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26
Q

Manifestations of Cellular Injury

Cellular ________ the accumulation of excessive water in the cell, is caused by the failure of ________ mechanisms and is a sign of many types of cellular injury.

A

Cellular swelling

transport

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27
Q

Manifestations of Cellular Injury

_____________ of organic substances—lipids, carbohydrates, glycogen, proteins, pigments—are caused by disorders in which

(a) cellular uptake of the substance _______ the cell’s capacity to catabolize (digest) or use it or
(b) cellular anabolism (synthesis) of the substance _______ the cell’s capacity to use or secrete it. .

A

Accumulations

exceeds

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28
Q

Cellular Death

________ is known as regulated or programmed cell death, characterized by “dropping off” of cellular fragments called apoptotic bodies.

A

Apoptosis

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29
Q

Cellular Death

There are four major types of necroses:

___________: Results from hypoxia caused by severe ischemia or hypoxia caused by chemical injury; occurs primarily in the kidneys, heart and adrenal glands

____________: Results from ischemic injury to neurons and glial cells in the brain; cells are digested by their own hydrolases

_______: Usually results from tuberculous pulmonary infection; tissues resemble clumped cheese in that they are soft and granular

___ necrosis: Cellular dissolution caused by powerful enzymes (lipases) that occur in the breast and pancreas

__________: Refer to death of tissue and results from severe hypoxic injury; occurs in the connective tissue like muscles and cellular membranes

A

Coagulative

Liquefactive

Caseous

Fat

Gangrenous

30
Q

Cellular Death

________ means “eating of self” and as a recycling factor it is a self-destructive process and a survival mechanism. When cells are starved or nutrient-deprived, the _________ process institutes cannibalization and recycles the digested contents.

________ can maintain cellular metabolism under starvation conditions and remove damaged organelles under stress conditions, improving the survival of cells.

A

Autophagy

autophagic

31
Q

_______ death is death of the entire organism. Postmortem change is diffuse and does not involve the inflammatory response.

Manifestations of _______ death include

  • cessation of respiration and circulation
  • gradual lowering of body ___________
  • pupil dilation
  • loss of elasticity
  • transparency in the ____
  • ______ stiffening
  • skin discoloration
A

Somatic death

temperature

skin

muscle

32
Q

Somatic Death

___________ - process of health cells being transformed into cancer cells

  1. Benign vs Malignant Tumors

Benign Tumor

  • Grows slowly
  • Well-defined capsule
  • Not invasive
  • Well differentiated (looks like the tissue it arose from)
  • Does not metastasize
  • Normal size and shape

Malignant Tumor

  • Grows rapidly
  • Lacks a capsule
  • Invades nearby blood vessels, lymphatics, and surrounding structures
  • Loss of differentiation (anaplasia)
  • Can spread far beyond the tissue of origin (metastasis)
  • Marked variability of size and shape (pleomorphic)
A

Oncogenesis

33
Q

Somatic Death

A _________ is a tumor in the epithelial tissues.

Type of cancer that originated in cells that make up the skin of tissues that line organs.

Open sore, red patches, scars

A

carcinoma

34
Q

Somatic Death

An ______________ is a tumor in the ductal or glandular structures (like mammary glands in the breast).

Type of cancer that starts in the glands that line the inside of the organs

Most common type of colon cancer

Most breast cancers are this

Commonly found in the esophagus

A

adenocarcinoma

35
Q

Somatic Death

_________ are tumors in the lymph tissue.

A

Lymphomas

36
Q

Somatic Death

_________ are tumors of blood-forming cells.

Four Types
ALL - Least common type, most common in children

AML - Most common type in adults
CLL

CML - found mostly in adults

A

Leukemias

37
Q

Somatic Death

_________ in situ is early stage growth that is localized to the epithelium and has not penetrated the local basement membrane or the surrounding stroma.

A

Carcinoma

38
Q

Somatic Death

_____ markers are specific biochemical markers of tumors. They are substances produced by both benign and malignant cells and are either present in or on tumor cells or found in blood, spinal fluid, or urine.

_____ markers include:

  • hormones
  • enzymes
  • genes
  • antigens
  • antibodies
A

Tumor

39
Q

Somatic Death

Initiators of Cancer:
Nicotine
- Nicotine
- Alcohol
- \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
- Helicobacor pylori
- Oncogenic viruses (they turn things on/off inappropriately)
- Inflammation 
        - Pro-inflammatory cytokines lead to increased reactive oxygen species that damage DNA and increase risk for mutations that may cause cancer
- Decreased immunity
- \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ 
- \_\_\_\_\_\_\_/inactivity
A

Hormones

Chemotherapy

Obesity

40
Q

Somatic Death

________ cancer is cancer that occurs in people who do not have an inherited change in their DNA; they do not have a predisposition that was inherited. This presents _____ birth.

A

Sporadic

after

41
Q

Somatic Death

Causes of _______ Cancer:

  • Creation of an oncogene
    • Proto-oncogene is a gene that promotes cell proliferation in a healthy cell.
    • An oncogene is a mutated proto-oncogene that over-promotes cell growth
  • __________ of a tumor suppression gene
  • Malfunction of a ____ taker (repair) gene
  • Malfunction of telomeres
  • Usually they shrink as healthy cells reproduce, so they shrink as people age but in cancer cells, they do not shrink so the cell can replicate endlessly
A

Genetic

Inhibition

care

42
Q

Somatic Death

Multiple ___ Theory (must have all six)

  1. Self sufficiency in growth signals
    - Does not need other signals to decide to grow
  2. Insensitivity to antigrowth signals
  3. Evading apoptosis
  4. Limitless replicative potential
    - Telomeres do not shrink
  5. Sustained angiogenesis
    - Keep generating more blood supply
  6. Tissue invasion and metastasis
    - Not encapsulated and spreads
A

Hit

43
Q

Somatic Death

________________ is bone marrow suppression. This occurs as a complication from cancer/cancer therapy. It leads to:

______: Low hemoglobin level that causes paleness, weakness, and fatigue

_______________: Greatly decreased thrombocyte level, which causes a risk for bleeding

__________/neutropenia -Low leukocyte count (especially neutrophils) so there is an increased risk for infection

A

Myelosuppression

Anemia

Thrombocytopenia

Leukopenia

44
Q

Somatic Death

Caution Signs: refer patient if one of these is occurring:

  • Change in ______ or bladder habits
  • A sore throat
  • Unusual bleeding or discharge
  • Thickening or ____
  • Indigestion or dysphagia
  • Obvious change in wart/mole (ABCDE)
  • Nagging _____ or hoarseness
A

bowel

lump

cough

45
Q

Somatic Death

Mole Assessment

  • Asymmetrical shape
  • Border ____________
  • Color changes/more than - 1 shade/black
  • Diameter greater than _ mm
  • Evolution
A

irregularity

6

46
Q

Somatic Death

Mole Assessment

  • Asymmetrical shape
  • Border ____________
  • _____ changes/more than 1 shade/black
  • Diameter greater than _ mm
  • Evolution
A

irregularity

6

Color

47
Q

Genetics

An ______ is one of the variant forms of a gene at a particular locus.

A

allele

48
Q

Genetics

The _____ is the position along a chromosome that a gene occupies

A

locus

49
Q

Genetics

_____________ is when two alleles are not identical; the dominant allele will determine the phenotype.

A

Heterogeneous

phenotype

50
Q

Genetics

When two alleles are the same, they are said to be __________.

A

homogenous

51
Q

Genetics

The composition of genes at a given locus is known as the ________. The outward appearance of an individual, which is the result of both ________ and environment, is the phenotype

A

genotype

52
Q

Genetics

__________ traits are traits that result from several genes acting together.

A

Polygenic

53
Q

Genetics

______________ traits are traits that are influenced by the environment.

A

Multifactorial

54
Q

Genetics

_____________ is the process in which messenger RNA is synthesized from a DNA template by RNA polymerase.

  • RNA polymerase binds to a promoter site, which is a sequence of DNA that specifies the beginning of a gene
  • Uracil is the base used in RNA rather than thymine, so uracil binds with the adenine of the DNA template
  • In eukaryotes, many RNA sequences are removed by nuclear enzymes, and the remaining sequences are spliced together to form the functional mRNA that migrates to the cytoplasm. The excised sequences are called introns and the sequences that are left to code for proteins are called exons.
A

Transcription

55
Q

Genetics

_________ are inherited alterations of genetic materials.

A

Mutations

56
Q

Genetics

________ are things that increase the frequency of mutations

  • Radiation
  • chemicals
A

Mutagens

57
Q

Genetics

________ occurs when cells of a multiple of the normal number of chromosomes (multiples of 23).

Haploid (in gametes)
and
diploid (in somatic cells) cells are euploid forms

  • When a euploid cell has more than the diploid number it is a _________ cell
    • _________ occurs when a zygote has three copies of each chromosome (69 chromosomes)

-_________ occurs when there are four copies of each chromosome (92 chromosomes)

A

Euploidy

polyploid

Triploidy - 69

Tetraploidy - 92

58
Q

Genetics - Image on Cellular Regulation Part II

___________ occurs when a cell does not contain a multiple of 23 chromosomes; the cell may have three copies of one chromosome (trisomy) or the presence of only one copy of given chromosome in a diploid cell (monosomy)

Usually caused by nondisjunction, which is failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate normally during meiosis or mitosis

____ Syndrome is a form of aneuploidy; it is trisomy 21. Patients with this aneuploidy have mental retardation, low nasal bridge, and protruding tongue. Risk increases as maternal age increases.

________ Syndrome is a sex chromosome aneuploidy that is characterized by a female with only one X chromosome

_______ _ is when a female as more than three X chromosome; symptoms worsen with each additional X.

___________ Syndrome is when a male has more than one X chromosome (XXY or XXXY)

A

Aneuploidy

Down Syndrome

Turner’s Syndrome

Trisomy X

Klinefelter syndrome

59
Q

Genetics

_____________ is the interchanging of material between nonhomologous chromosomes

Ex. exchanging between chromosome 1 and chromosome 9

A

Translocation

60
Q

Genetics - Image on Cellular Regulation Part II

Autosomal ________: only one allele is required for observable effect, there is a 50% chance of recurrence in offspring, males and females are effected equally, generations are not _______

____________ Disease: neurologic disorder whose main features are progressive dementia and increasingly uncontrollable limb movements; usually the onset is later between 25 and 45

A

Dominant

skipped

Huntington’s

61
Q

Genetics - Image on Cellular Regulation Part II

Incomplete __________ occurs when an individual has the genes but the gene is not expressed.

A

penetrance

62
Q

Genetics - Image on Cellular Regulation Part II

Autosomal _________ traits affect males and females equally and in heterogeneous (carrier) parents the offspring have __% chance of being affected

______ ________ is an autosomal recessive disease that is more common in Northern Europeans

______ ____ disease is an autosomal recessive disease that affects hemoglobin shape and is more common in African Americans

___ _____ is an autosomal recessive disorder that is more common in Jewish patients

A

recessive

25%

Cystic fibrosis

Sickle cell

Tay Sachs

63
Q

Genetics

X linked disorders come from the X chromosome so they affect _____ more often than _______

________ Muscular Dystrophy is an x-linked recessive disorder caused by mutations in the dystrophin gene – the patient has muscle weakness that worsens over the years, difficulty walking, and large calves

A

males

females

Duchenne

64
Q

Most common cancer diagnosed in women

Often begins with the cells in the milk-producing ducts

A

Breast Cancer

65
Q

Affects more than 200,000 American annually

Leading cause of cancer deaths in the US among women and men

A

Lung Cancer

66
Q

There are no early warning signs

Symptoms appear once a tumor cause the gland to swell or cancers spreads beyond

A

Prostate Cancer

67
Q

Most often begins as small noncancerous clumps of cells called adenomatous polyps - these polyps can then develop into _____ _____

A

Colon Cancer

68
Q

Rare kidney cancer that primarily effect children

Often affect age 3-4

A

Wilm’s Tumor

69
Q

Rare type of cancer that grow in the connective tissue

Main types: Soft and Bone

Painless lumps cause problems with breathing

A

Sacroma

70
Q

Most common type of bone cancer in children and teens

tends to occur at the ends of long bones

caused by an error in the child’s DNA or genetic code

broken bones not cause by normal events such as falls

A

Osteosarcoma

71
Q

Melanoma:

Fair skinned

Can be cured if treated early

A

Skin Cancer

72
Q

Histologic Grading

To clinically classify extent/spread use term staging

Staging:
_ - cancer in situ 
_ - tumor limited to tissue of origin 
_ - limited local spread 
_ - extensive local/regional spread
_ - metasasis
A

Diagnostic

Pathophysiology (11 decks)

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