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9700 > cellstructure > Flashcards

cellstructure Flashcards

1
Q

surface area: volume

A

surface area/volume

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2
Q

surface area=

A

length x height

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3
Q

volume=

A

length * height * depth

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4
Q
A

surface area= (2*2)6=24µm^2
volume=8µm^3
SA:V= 3:1

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5
Q

Surface area to volume ratio decreases as

A

cells get larger.

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6
Q

Single celled organisms have relatively

A

large SA:V ratio compared to large multicellular organisms.

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7
Q

The larger the surface area to volume ratio,

A

the quicker the rate of diffusion takes place.

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8
Q

number of multicellular cells in humans

A

100 trillion

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9
Q

sa:v ratio in humans(multicellular)

A

less

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10
Q

diffusion distance in humans

A

large

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11
Q

diffusion speed in humans

A

slow

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12
Q

Hence, humans need respiratory, circulatory and excretory systems to

A

speed up the diffusion process.

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13
Q

number of cells in amoeba

A

1

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14
Q

sa:v ratio in amoeba

A

more

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15
Q

diffusion distance in amoeba

A

less

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16
Q

diffusion speed in amoeba

A

fast

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17
Q

Amoeba does not need systems as

A

diffusion is facilitated.

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18
Q

typical plant cell size

A

10-100µm

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19
Q

Principles of Cell Theory

A

All living things are made of cells

Smallest living unit of structure and function of all organisms is the cell

All cells arise from pre-existing cells (this principle discarded the idea of spontaneous generation)

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20
Q

why are cells small

A

Easier to replace if damaged or old.

High surface area to volume ratio.

Diffusion distance is less. So, the speed of diffusion is faster

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21
Q

Magnification:

A

The number of times greater that an image is than the actual object

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22
Q
A

40

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23
Q

magnification =

A

image size ÷ actual (real) size of the object

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24
Q

Resolution

A

the ability to distinguish between two objects very close together; the higher the resolution of an image, the greater the detail that can be seen.

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25
Q

TYPES OF MICROSCOPES

A
  1. Light microscope
  2. Electron microscope
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26
Q

types of electron microscope

A

Transmission electron microscope & Scanning electron microscope

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27
Q

light microscope adv

A

Portable
Can observe living things
Provide coloured images
No need of technical training
Can observe life processes like mitosis

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28
Q

light microscope DisAd

A

Resolution is only x200 nm

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29
Q

ELECTRON MICROSCOPE adv

A

Very high resolution – 0.5 nm
Detailed image can be seen
Use electron beams with low wavelength

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30
Q

ELECTRON MICROSCOPE DisAd

A

Non portable
Only dead specimen are seen [or need to kill living cells as it works in vacuum]
Gives only black and white image
Need heavy metals for staining

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31
Q

TEM

A

Electron beam pass through the sample. Inner structure can be seen as electrons get transmitted through the specimen
Magnifying power x5,000,000
Maximum resolution is 0.5 nm
Produces 2-D and black & white image

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32
Q

SEM

A

Electrons scan over the surface of the sample. Only reflected beam form the image
Magnifying power x1,000,000
Maximum resolution is 3- 20 nm

Produces 3-D black & white image

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33
Q

eyepiece lens

A

magnifies and focuses the image from the objective onto the eye

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34
Q

objective lens

A

collects light passing through the specimen and produces a magnified image

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35
Q

condenser lens

A

focuses the light onto the specimen and held between the cover slip and slide

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36
Q

electron gun or anode

A

produces a beam of electrons

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37
Q

When object in the specimen are much smaller than the wavelength of the radiation,

A

then the waves are not stopped by them and they are not seen.

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38
Q

If the object is transparent,

A

it will allow light waves to pass through it and therefore will not be visible.

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39
Q

microscopy long

A

Microscopy is the technical field of using microscopes to view samples & objects that cannot be seen with the unaided eye (objects that are not within the resolution range of the normal eye)

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40
Q

radiation used in light microscope

A

visible light

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41
Q

radiation source in light microscope

A

Bulb [light]

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42
Q

radiation wavelength in light microscope

A

400 nm to 700nm

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43
Q

nature of lens in light microscope

A

Glass / convex lens

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44
Q

light microscope image seen on

A

eye

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45
Q

radiation medium for light microscope

A

air

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46
Q

type of specimen in light microscope

A

Living/ dead

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47
Q

stain used in light microscope

A

Coloured dye

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48
Q

nature of image in light microscope

A

Seen in real colour /colour of stain

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49
Q

cost/space in light microscope

A

Less expensive and need less space

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50
Q

magnification in light microscope

A

×1000

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51
Q

limit of resolution in light microscope

A

Lower than electron microscope

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52
Q

Maximum resolution is :

A

the shortest distance between 2 separate points
equal to half the wavelength used

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53
Q

Longer the wavelength,

A

lower the resolution

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54
Q

visible light is from 400 nm to 700 nm the maximum resolution of a light

A

microscope is 200 nm

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55
Q

Why can’t we see the ribosomes using light microscope?

A

The shortest wavelength of light is 400 nm, therefore the resolution of a light microscope is 200 nm. The diameter of a ribosome is much smaller than this, namely 25 nm. So can’t be seen

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56
Q

Electron microscopy

A

Electron microscopes use a beam of electrons rather than visible light to illuminate the sample. They focus the electron beam using electromagnetic coils instead of glass lenses (as a light microscope does) because electrons can’t pass through glass.

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57
Q

radiation used in electron microscope

A

Electron beams

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58
Q

radiation source in electron microscope

A

Electron gun / thermionic emission.
When a metal [tungsten] becomes very hot, some of its electrons gain so much energy that they escape from their orbits

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59
Q

radiation wavelength in electron microscope

A

1nm

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60
Q

nature of lens in electron microscope

A

Electromagnetic lenses. Electrons are negatively charged particles and has negligible mass.

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61
Q

electron microscope image seen on

A

Fluorescent screen / photographic film. High energy can damage eye. Impossible to see electron beam

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62
Q

radiation medium in electron microscope

A

Vacuum to avoid scattering on Collison with particles

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63
Q

type of specimen in electron microscope

A

Dead and dehydrated- water boils at room temperature

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64
Q

the stain used in electron microscope

A

Heavy metal atoms

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65
Q

nature of image in electron microscope

A

Black and white / false color by computer [ARTEFACT]

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66
Q

magnification in electron microscope

A

×5,000,000

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67
Q

cost/space in electron microscope

A

Very expensive needs large space

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68
Q

limit of resolution in electron microscope

A

High [0.5nm] because of high frequency and low wave length

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69
Q

Disadvantage of SEM

A

Only surface structure is seen not internal structure
In SEM, resolution is between 3 nm and 20 nm which is lesser than TEM

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70
Q

S.I. unit of length

A

meter

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71
Q

While using light microscope

A

show units in μm

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72
Q

While using electron microscope

A

show units in nm

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73
Q

always measure an image in

A

mm

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74
Q

eyepiece graticule is placed on the

A

eyepiece lens

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75
Q

stage micrometer is placed on

A

the scale

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76
Q
A

eyepiece lens

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77
Q
A

eyepiece graticule

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78
Q

Cells and organelles can be measured with a microscope by means of an

A

eyepiece graticule.

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79
Q

The eyepiece graticule is placed in the microscope eyepiece so that it can be seen at

A

the same time as the object to be measured.

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80
Q

eyepiece graticule

A

transparent scale.
It usually has 100 divisions.

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81
Q

i epg=

A

stage micrometer scale/eyepiece graticule scale*1000= ans (microm)

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82
Q

diameter of cell

A

=1epg* measurement of cell on the eyepiece graticule

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83
Q

After adjusting the stage and eye piece graticule, if we change the magnification,

A

the eyepiece remains the same whereas the stage micrometer enlarges

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84
Q

Organelles

A

Functionally and structurally distinct part of a cell, Surrounded by membranes for compartmentalization

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85
Q

2 types of cells

A

prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

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86
Q

Characteristics of all cells

A

A surrounding membrane
Protoplasm – cell contents in thick fluid
Organelles – structures for cell function

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87
Q

organelles without membrane

A

microtubule, centriole, ribosome

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88
Q

Organelles with single membrane

A

lysosome, Golgi body ,SER ,RER ,vacuole, cilia , microvilli ,vesicles

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89
Q

omeOrganelles with double membrane

A

Nucleus
Chloroplast
Mitochondria

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90
Q

CELL SURFACE MEMBRANE AKA

A

plasma membrane

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91
Q

function of cell surface membrane

A

Controls movement of substances in and out of the cell

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92
Q
A

cell surface membrane

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93
Q

phospholipid bilayer is made up of

A

cholestroal,phospholipid and protein

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94
Q

leaving nuclear pores

A

mRNA, tRNA and ribosomes

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95
Q

entering the nucleus

A

proteins to help make ribosomes, nucleotides, ATP and some hormones such as thyroid hormone T3.

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96
Q

nucleus function

A

Controls the cell activity

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97
Q
A

phospholipid bilayer

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98
Q
A

electron micrograph

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99
Q

Heterochromatin is the part of

A

the chromosome in which the DNA does not have coding genes.

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100
Q

euchromatin is part of

A

chromose in which coding sequences are present

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101
Q

two types of ribosomes

A

80S and 70S ribosomes

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102
Q

80S RIBOSOME

A

25 nm
Larger

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103
Q

70S RIBOSOME

A

Smaller

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104
Q

Each ribosome contains at least

A

one large rRNA and at least one small rRNA.

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105
Q

In the nucleolus, the large and small rRNAs combine with

A

ribosomal proteins to form the large and small subunits of the ribosome.

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106
Q

ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM [RER]

A

Network of membrane in cytoplasm

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107
Q
A

RER

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108
Q

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum in liver cells of vertebrates helps in

A

detoxifying poisons and drugs. It contains enzymes that catalyze a number of reactions that can make lipid-soluble drugs and metabolic wastes into water-soluble so that these can easily be expelled out from the body.

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109
Q

Sarcoplasmic reticulum is a network of specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum that is necessary for

A

transmitting electrical impulses and also stores calcium ions. The muscle cells are rich in smooth endoplasmic reticulum so they are known as sarcoplasmic reticulum (membrane-bound structure rich in muscle cells)

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110
Q

Describe the differences in structure and function between RER and SER.

A
  • RER has ribosomes and SER does not have ribosomes
    -RER is made up of flattened sacs where as SER is tubular
    -RER produces proteins, SER produces lipids and cholestroal
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111
Q

golgi bodies AKA

A

Golgi apparatus / complex

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112
Q

function of golgi body

A

Modification of proteins and lipids[e.g. glycosylation, phosphorylation, cutting and folding of proteins]

Packaging molecules into vesicles for release of proteins out of the cell

Formation of lysosomes

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113
Q

How proteins move out of a cell?

A

ribosome -> RER -> transport vesicle -> golgi body -> secretory vesicle ->cell surface membrane -> out

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114
Q

LYSOSOMES

A

a spherical organelle found in eukaryotic cells; it contains digestive (hydrolytic) enzymes and has a variety of destructive functions, such as removal of old cell organelles.

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115
Q

hydrolases

A

The enzymes in lysosomes
60 + enzymes: including proteases, lipases and nucleases

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116
Q

Hydrolysis works fastest in an

A

acidic environment, therefore a pH of 4 – 5 is maintained inside the lysosomes

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117
Q

hydrolysis happens in

A

lysosomes

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118
Q

golgi bodies are made up of

A

cisternae

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119
Q

RER made up of

A

interconnected sacs known as cisternae

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120
Q

Space inside the cisternae are called

A

lumen

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121
Q

Hydrolysis

A

process by which chemical compounds are broken apart by the addition of water.

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122
Q

lysosome features

A

small spehrical sacs

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123
Q

lysosome size

A

0.1 – 0.5 μm in diameter

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124
Q

lysosome mebrane

A

single outer membrane

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125
Q

golgi body synthesizes

A

lysosomes

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126
Q

lysosomes helps to destroy worn out organelles or dead cells

A

as in mammary glands after lactation;
the heads of sperm contain a special lysosome, the acrosome, for digesting a path to the ovum;
in WBC, lysosomes help to digest bacteria during phagocytosis

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127
Q

activites of lysosome

A

1) getting rid of unwanted cell components - autophagy
2)endocytosis
3)exocytosis
4)self digestion - autolysis

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128
Q

SELF-DIGESTION

A

Contents released into the cytoplasm
Whole cell gets digested [autolysis]
In mammary glands, cells are destroyed after lactation period is over
E.g. tadpole tail during metamorphosis; restoring uterus after pregnancy

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129
Q

mitochondria can be seen in

A

various shapes

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130
Q

mitochondria size

A

1 μm in diameter

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131
Q

functions of mitochondria

A

Help in aerobic respiration
Energy is stored as special molecule called ATP [Adenosine Triphosphate]
Synthesize ATP / produce energy in the form of ATP

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132
Q

ATP

A

The molecule that is the universal energy currency in all living cells; the purpose of respiration is to make ATP
small, soluble,highly mobile,

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133
Q

ATP made in the mitochondria spreads wherever

A

they are needed and releases energy by getting converted to ADP [can be recycled later in the mitochondria] – by the process of hydrolysis

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134
Q
A

mitoxhondria

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135
Q

1 particles/oxysomes are present in the

A

inner mitochondrial space of the mitochondrion. It is attached on the infoldings called the cristae. It has enzyme called ATP synthase. It is responsible for ATP synthesis and oxidation.

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136
Q

cristae in mitochondria

A

folds of the inner membrane of the mitochondrial envelope on which are found stalked particles of ATP synthase and electron transport chains associated with aerobic respiration

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137
Q

ADP: adenosine diphosphate

A

the molecule that is converted to ATP by addition of phosphate [a reaction called phosphorylation] during cellular respiration; the enzyme responsible is ATP synthase; the reaction requires energy

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138
Q

respiration in cells

A
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139
Q

Glycolysis

A

Happens in cytoplasm
No O2 needed

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140
Q

Kreb’s cycle

A

Happens in the matrix of mitochondria

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141
Q

Electron transport chain

A

Happens in inner mitochondrial membrane [oxysomes]

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142
Q

1 molecule of glucose

A

can release 38 ATP

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143
Q

CHLOROPLAST shape

A

Chloroplasts tend to have an elongated
or oval shape

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144
Q

size of chlorophlast

A

3 μm to 10 μm

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145
Q

Inside the chloroplast:

A

Thylakoid = flattened, fluid-filled, membrane bound sacs
Grana = thylakoid stacks
Stroma = interior solution

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146
Q

Stroma in chlorophlast contains

A

70S ribosomes[seen as small black dots in the stroma], small circular DNA and starch grains
Have prokaryotic origin – endosymbiont theory

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147
Q

Main function of chlorophlast

A

Site of photosynthesis
to carry out photosynthesis

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148
Q

photosynthesis occurs in 2 steps

A

light and dark reaction

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149
Q

STAGE 1: Light reaction / light dependent reaction

A

Site of light dependent reaction - GRANA
Light energy is absorbed by photosynthetic pigments, particularly the green pigment chlorophyll [seen on the membranes of chloroplast] using sunlight

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150
Q

STAGE 2 : Dark reaction / light independent reaction

A

ATP/ the energy from stage 1 is used to convert CO2 to sugar
Occurs in stroma
Sugars made is stored as starch grains in the stroma
Lipid droplets are also seen in the stroma – helps to make membranes
This requires a cycle of enzyme-controlled reactions called the Calvin cycle and takes place in solution in the stroma.

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151
Q

photosynthesis reaction

A
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152
Q

CELL WALL seen in

A

plants and prokaryotes

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153
Q

cell primary wall size

A

0.1 μm thick

154
Q

cell wall has 2 walls

A

primary wall and secondary walls

155
Q

primary walls

A

rigid [parallel fibres of cellulose running
through a matrix of pectin and hemicellulose]

156
Q

Cellulose adv

A

– inelastic and provides high tensile strength
– gives strength when being turgid due to osmosis

157
Q

Extra layers of cellulose added to the primary layer – making a

A

secondary wall – cellulose is parallel but run in different directions
– thus increasing the rigidity

158
Q

cell wall is fully __

A

permeable

159
Q

why is cell wall fully permeable?

A

because there are spaces / gaps in between
fibres

160
Q

addition of lignin in cell makes it more

A

e rigid [e.g. sclerenchyma, xylem vessel elements]

161
Q

functions of cell wall

A

-Mechanical strength and support
-Prevents cells from bursting
-help determine the shapes of cells
- Apoplastic movement
- Symplastic movement

162
Q

wdym by Mechanical strength and support

A

e.g. lignification

163
Q

cell wall prevents cell from bursting from

A

osmosis

164
Q

Different orientations of the layers of cellulose fibres
help

A

determine the shapes of cells as they grow

165
Q

Apoplastic movement

A

a system of interconnected
cell walls in a plant; transport route for water, inorganic
ions and other materials

166
Q

Symplastic movement

A

living connections through
neighboring cell walls, the plasmodesmata, forms
another transport route

167
Q

Cell walls of root endodermis

A

suberin [waterproof
substance that limits the intake of water and minerals]

168
Q

Epidermis – waxy cuticle –

A

– helps reduce water loss by
transpiration

169
Q

eukaryotes

A

protists, plants, fungi and animals

170
Q

prokaryote differences compared to eukaryotes

A

Cell wall made up of peptidoglycan – a polysaccharide combined with amino acids

171
Q

eukaryotes ( fungi) differences compared to prokaryotes

A

Cell wall – made up of chitin [a nitrogen containing polysaccharide similarto cellulose]

172
Q

eukaryotes (plants) differences compared to prokaryotes

A

Cell wall - made up of cellulose and lignin

173
Q

eukaryotes (animals) differences compared to prokaryotes

A

NO CELL WALL

174
Q
A

cellulose fibres

175
Q
A

cellulose structure

176
Q

PLASMODESMATA

A

strands of cytoplasm passing through channels, where there is no cell wall,

177
Q

plasmodesmata function

A
  • Allows substances to pass from cell to cell without passing
    through the cell wall
  • e.g. water, sucrose, amino acids, minerals ions, ATP
  • Allows more rapid transport of substances
178
Q

vacuoles are commonly found in

A

plants [large permanent central vacuole]

179
Q

vacuole in animals

A

small and temporary[phagosomes, food vacuoles, autophagic vacuoles]

180
Q

vacuole is surrounded by

A

single membrane called tonoplast

181
Q

vacuole function

A
  • support -by being turgid in nonwoody plants
  • plant central vacuole – has lysosomal activities
  • presence of secondary metabolites
  • food reserves
  • waste products
  • Growth in size
  • osmotic uptake
    – helps in growh
182
Q

secondary metabolites

A

 anthocyanin – red, purple, pink and blue colours to flowers and fruits
 Alkaloids and tannins – deter herbivores from eating plants
 Latex – e.g.in rubber tree [latex in opium poppy – alkaloids such as morphine
from which opium and heroine are made]

183
Q

food reserves –

A

sucrose in sugar beet, protein storage in seeds

184
Q

Waste products –

A

– e.g. crystals of calcium oxalate

185
Q

microtubules size

A
  • Very small [25 nm]
  • Long, rigid, hollow tubes
186
Q

microtubules are made from

A

a protein called tubulin – dimers – protofilaments –13 protofilaments make 1 microtubule

187
Q

microtubules are formed and broken down at

A

MTOCs[Microtubule Organising centres]

188
Q

microtubules functions

A

-Make up the cytoskeleton
-Provides mechanical support
-Acts as an intracellular transport system for the movement of
vesicles or other components
- Beating of the flagella and cilia
-Makes up spindle fibres and centrioles used in cell division

189
Q

alpha tubulin and beta tubulin make

A

dimers and many dimers together make protofilaments and 13 protofilaments together make up a microtubule

190
Q

centriole shape and size

A

Centrioles – hollow - cylindrical – 500 nm long

191
Q

CENTRIOLES appearance

A

Non-membrane bound structures

192
Q

centrioles are found in

A

pairs– lie right angles to each other near to the nucleus in a region called centrosome

193
Q

centrioles made up of

A

9 triplets of microtubules

194
Q

centrioles are not found in

A

plant cells

195
Q

Function of centriole

A
  • Involved in cell division
  • Replicates before cell division and moves to opposite poles of a cell
  • Found at the base of cilia and flagella – where they are known as basal bodies
  • Microtubules extend from basal bodies – for the beating movement of cilia and flagella
196
Q

cilia and flagella have

A

identical structures

197
Q

Cilia:

A

whip like structures projecting from the surface of many animal cells and the cells of
many unicellular organisms; they beat, causing locomotion or movement of fluid across the cell surface

198
Q

cillia is surrounded by

A

extension of cell surface membrane

199
Q

cilla size and number

A

short and numerous

200
Q

At the base of cilium and flagellum are

A

basal bodies – identical to centriole structure
* Cilia and flagella grows from basal bodies

201
Q

cillia functions

A
  • Free living cells – to swim through the fluid
  • For cells attached – to move the fluid on the cell surface e.g. ciliated epithelium pushing mucus in the respiratory tract
  • Smaller in diameter compared to microvilli
202
Q

microvilli is found only in

A

animal cells

203
Q

microvilli is found on

A

epithelial cells in the intestines and kidneys

204
Q

MICROVILLI size and shape

A
  • Finger-like extensions of the cell surface membrane
  • Diameter – 50 to 550 nm
  • Length – 100 nm to several microns
205
Q

Functions of microvilli

A
  • Increase surface area of the cell
    membrane for:
     Reabsorption – in PCT
     Secretion of enzymes
     Absorption in small intestines
     Excretion of waste substances
206
Q

Structures seen using HQ light microscope without stain

A
  • Nucleus
  • Chloroplast
  • Cell wall
  • Cytoplasm
  • Vacuole
207
Q

Structures seen using HQ light microscope With proper stain

A
  • Mitochondria [not clear but as tiny dots]
  • Nucleolus
  • Centriole
  • Golgi bodies
  • Chromosome only during cell division
  • Starch grain
208
Q

not visible in daylight microscope

A

Golgi body, mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum

209
Q

plant cell size

A

[10 – 100 microns]

210
Q

plant cell size

A

[10 – 30 microns]

211
Q

plant cell organelles ONLY

A

chlorophlast, cell wall, large permanent vacuole, plasmodesmata

212
Q

animal cell organelles ONLY

A

centriole and centrosome, lysosome

213
Q

bacteria size

A

[1 μm – 5 μm]

214
Q

BACTERIA

A

A group of single celled microorganisms that comes under the prokaryotes[pro primitive; karyon - nucleus];. They have a number of characteristics, such as the ability to form spores, which distinguish them from the other group of prokaryotes known as
Archaea.

215
Q

structure of cell wall in bacteria

A

containing murein

216
Q

murein,

A

a peptidoglycan [a polysaccharide combined with amino acids]

217
Q

MEURIN IMPORTANCE

A

very essential for the survival of bacteria

218
Q

structure of cytoplasm in bacteria

A

without membrane bound organelles

219
Q

structure of ribosome in bacteria

A

70S ribosomes

220
Q

structure of circular DNA in bacteria

A

found in a region called nucleoid

221
Q

nucleoid in bacteria contains

A

proteins and smaller
amounts of RNA. Not surrounded by double layer of nuclear membrane like in eukaryotes

222
Q

flagellum in bacteria

A

swim

223
Q

flagellum in bacteria structure

A

simple hollow cylinder made up of identical protein molecules

224
Q

how does flagellum in bacteria work

A

by rotating its base like a propeller, resulting in the corkscrew-shaped motion in bacteria

225
Q

Infolding of cell surface membrane in bacteria

A

space for biochemical reactions; In blue-green bacteria,
this space contains photosynthetic pigments; in some bacteria nitrogen fixation occurs in this infolding

226
Q

capsule in bacteria

A

an extra layer outside the cell wall, forming a capsule or a slime layer

227
Q

capsule –

A

rigid, made of polysaccharides

228
Q

capsule function

A

provides protection from antibiotics and also prevents phagocytes from engulfing them;

229
Q

slime layer function

A

more diffuse and is easily washed off

230
Q

plasmid in bacteria

A

small circle of DNA; contains only a few genes; these genes can help by providing
antibiotic resistance;

231
Q

plasmid can copy and spread from

A

from one bacterium to another

232
Q

plasmid ,DNA is not associated with

A

proteins and is referred to as ‘naked’ DNA

233
Q

Pili [singular - pilus] in bacteria structure

A

fine protein rods; vary in length and stiffness; one to several hundred
present in one cell;

234
Q

Pili [singular - pilus] in bacteria funcyion

A

used for attachment and interactions with other cells or surfaces [e.g. transfer of genes including plasmids]

235
Q

prokaryotes nucleus

A

primitive nucleus

236
Q

eukaryotes nucleus

A

true nucleus

237
Q

prokaryotes are thought to have evolved

A

about 3.5 billion years ago

238
Q

eukaryotes are thought to have evolved

A

about 1.5 billion years ago

239
Q

prokaryotes diameter

A

1 – 5μm

240
Q

eukaryotes diameter and size

A

40 μm diameter and up to 1000 times the volume of prokaryotic cells

241
Q

DNA in prokaryotes

A

circular and lies free in the cytoplasm

242
Q

DNA in eukaryotes

A

not circular and is contained in a nucleus – the nucleus is surrounded by an envelope of two membranes

243
Q

ribosomes in prokaryotes

A

slightly smaller (70S) ribosomes (about 20nm diameter) than those of eukaryotes

244
Q

ribosomes in eukaryotes

A

slightly larger (80S) ribosomes (about 25nm diameter) than
those of prokaryotes

245
Q

prokaryotes organelles

A

very few cell organelles – no separate
membrane-bound organelles are present

246
Q

eukaryotes organelles

A

many types of cell organelle are present:
■ single membrane, e.g. lysosomes, Golgi body, vacuole, ER
■ double membrane e.g. nucleus, mitochondrion,
chloroplast
■ no membrane, e.g. ribosomes, centrioles, microtubules

247
Q

cell wall in prokaryotes

A

cell wall present – wall contains murein, a peptidoglycan

248
Q

cell wall in eukaryotes

A

cell wall sometimes present, e.g. in plants and fungi –contains cellulose or lignin in plants, and chitin in fungi

249
Q

cell division in prokaryotes

A

Cell division – binary fission; does not involve spindle

250
Q

cell division in eukaryotes

A

Cell division – takes place by mitosis or meiosis; involves a spindle

251
Q

nitrogen fixation in prokaryotes

A

Some carry out nitrogen fixation

252
Q

nitrogen fixation in eukaryotes

A

None carries out nitrogen fixation

253
Q

VIRUSES shape and size

A

A very small [20-300 nm]infectious particle which can replicate only inside living cells; it consists of a molecule of DNA or RNA (the genome) surrounded by a protein coat; an outer lipid envelope may also be present

254
Q

viruses cell structure

A

Do not possess a cell structure – no cytoplasm or cell organelles

255
Q

viruses mostly consist of

A

DNA or RNA,a protective coat of protein molecules called capsid - its protein
coat (or capsid) is made up of separate protein molecules, each
of which is called a capsomere,* In some viruses – a membrane like outer layer called envelope made of phospholipids, proteins may project from the envelope
* All viruses are parasitic - because they can only reproduce by
infecting and taking over living cells.

256
Q

size of organelles in order

A

nucleus, chloroplast, Mitochondria ,nucleolus , lysosome , centriole, Ribosome

257
Q

CENTRIFUGATION

A
  • The idea of rupturing cells, and spinning them at very high
    speed
  • Largest structures will sediment first
258
Q

ORDER OF SEDIMENTATION

A
  1. Nucleus
  2. Chloroplast
  3. Mitochondria
  4. Other organelles
  5. Ribosomes
259
Q

mitochondria membrane

A

has double membrane, have intermembrane space

260
Q

mitochondria is what type of organelle?

A

autonomous organelle

261
Q

respiration in mitochondria happens in

A

occurs in the matrix and in the cristae

262
Q

Intermembrane space

A

the space between the 2 membranes

263
Q

mitochondria divides by

A

binnary fission

264
Q

why is mitochondria seen in different shapes

A

they can be of different ages, the cross-section can be different, shows variety in size but in different planes

265
Q
Animal cell
A
266
Q

RER

A
267
Q

Plant cell

A
268
Q
A
269
Q

CSA size

A

about 7 nm thick

270
Q
A
271
Q

CSA is _ permeable

A

partially

272
Q

CSA made up of

A

made of phospholipid bilayer

273
Q

CSA under very high magnification

A

it is seen as three layers [trilaminar appearance] under very high magnification

274
Q

Nucleus size

A

largest and the most visible cell organelle
nucleus is approximately 6 micrometres (µm)

275
Q

nucleus membrane

A

surrounded by two membrane forming nuclear envelope
outer membrane is continuous with the ER

276
Q

nucleus has _

A

nuclear pores and loosely coiled structures called chromatin which have DNA

277
Q

nucleolus is _ an organelle

A

not

278
Q

nucleolus size

A

Covers nearly 25% volume of the nucleus

279
Q

nucleolus has genes that code for synthesis of

A

rRNA and tRNA

280
Q

nucleolus function

A

Its function is to make ribosomes using the information in its own DNA

281
Q

are the different parts of the nucleolus always together

A

The different parts of the nucleolus only come together during the manufacture of ribosomes

282
Q

The heterochromatin region of the chromosome is highly

A

condensed

283
Q

ribosome is considered the

A

smallest organelle

284
Q

ribosome size

A

25 nm

285
Q

does ribosome have membrane

A

no membrane

286
Q

ribosome is made up of

A

Made of rRNA that is synthesized in the nucleolus and proteins

287
Q

ribsome has _ subunits

A

2

288
Q

ribsome function

A

produces protein [site of Protein Synthesis]

289
Q

where are 80s ribosome found

A

cytoplasm and RER of all eukaryotes

290
Q

where are 70s ribosomes found

A

Found in the mitochondria and chloroplast of eukaryotes
Prokaryotes also have 70S ribosomes

291
Q

RER function

A

Provides a large surface area for the synthesis of proteins
Provides a pathway for the transport materials, especially proteins throughout the cell
Site of protein synthesis [due to the presence of 80S ribosomes]
Protein modification [e.g. protein folding; glycosylation – addition of carbohydrate chains to protein]

292
Q

transport proteins made to

A

golgi apparatus

293
Q

WHY IS SER CALLED SER

A

because it lacks ribosomes

294
Q

SER function

A

Secretion of lipid hormone and steroids [testosterone, estrogen and cortisol]

295
Q

very high number of SER in liver cells to

A

detoxify toxins

296
Q

SER IN OVARY

A

to make oestrogen and progesterone;

297
Q

SER IN TESTES

A

TO MAKE TESTOSTERONE

298
Q

SER IN MUSCLE CELLS

A

STORING CALCIUM IONS

299
Q

Golgi body structure

A

Have layered appearance
No connection between members
Not continuous with nuclear envelope
Swellings at the end of sacs for vesicle formation

300
Q

Vesicles are constantly being formed and broken down in golgi

A

Being formed by: transport vesicles from RER on cis face
Broken down to form: secretory vesicles and lysosomes on trans face

301
Q

mitochondria structure

A

inner membrane – CRISTAE - folded to increase the surface area
Matrix – interior of the mitochondria, enzymes, 70 S ribosomes and small circular DNA are seen in the matrix

302
Q

mitochondria divides by

A

binary fission
Have prokaryotic origin

303
Q

Mitochondria number increases as the

A

energy demand of cell increases [liver cell – 2000 mitochondria]

304
Q

chlorophlast is a _ organelle

A

relatively large

305
Q

chlorophlast membrane

A

2 outer membranes

306
Q

chlorphlast contains

A

chlorophyll

307
Q

Chloroplasts can change their orientation within the cell in order to

A

receive the maximum amount of light.

308
Q

vacuole size

A

1/3 rd of cell volume is vacuole

309
Q
A

refering to protein synthesis

310
Q
A

not enough ATP for transcription

311
Q
A
312
Q

which data must the student collect in order to callibrate eyepeice graticule

A

number of divsions of the eyepiece graticule scale equivalent

313
Q
A

convert micro metre to cm and divide the 1/ans

314
Q

Ribsome mcq

A

non membrane bound cylindrical structures

315
Q

SER mcq

A

membranes which surround an enclosed cavity

316
Q

centriole mcq

A

non membrane bound cylindrical structures

317
Q
A
318
Q

nucleus mcqmi

A

mRNA passes through to the ribosome

319
Q
A
320
Q
A
321
Q
A

actual length is 5
convert length of image into micro metre
do M=I/A

322
Q
A
323
Q
A

DNA from Q were of two types, with different base sequences. We know that there are two types of mesophyll cells in the leaves namely palisade mesophyll and spongy mesophyll

324
Q
A
325
Q
A
326
Q

What features show that the given electron micrograph is from the TEM?

A

Higher magnification, higher resolution than light microscope
Images is in 2D/ no surface contours
Organelle ultrastructure structure can be seen (give named examples such as internal structure of chloroplast)
Very thin sectionmm measurements

327
Q

Advantages of using light microscope instead of electron microscope

A

Can observe living tissue and living processes
Different types of stains can be used to observe specific tissue
Portable and easy to move
Colour can be seen
Lower costs and maintenance.

328
Q

what is the function of smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

A

steroid synthesis

329
Q

why is sucrose solution used when mitochondria are extracted?

A

to prevent them from changing in structure

330
Q

large sa of cristae?

A

enzyme reaction

331
Q

actively growing cell supplied with radioactive amino acids, which cell
component first shows an increase in radioactive activity?

A

rer
if tis supplied with glucose, answer would be golgi

332
Q

in which animal cell is golgi appartus most abundant?

A

goblet cells [contains highest proportion of single membrane-bound
structure]

333
Q

what increase efficiency of active transport

A

large sa of csm

334
Q

membranous sacs containing products of metabolism are formed by the
endoplasmic reticuluim in cells. where are these products used?

A

inside and outside the cell

335
Q

cell under 400x magnification; what can be seen? - qs could be reworded as
simple light microscope with daylight as the only source

A

cytoplasm, csm, nucleus and nucleolus
chloroplast also (i guess up till 3 microm)

336
Q

light miscrocope and em resolution/magnification

A

light - low, low //// em - high, high

337
Q

range of most eukaryotic cells?

A

10-100 micrometer
plant cell = 40 micrometer

338
Q

does protein synthesis require atp?

A

yes

339
Q

formation of hydrolytic enzymes - which organells r involved

A

rer, mito, golgi

340
Q

only requirement for a prokaryote is

A

circular dna THATS IT

341
Q

why is an eyepiece graticule calibrated?

A

it can be used to make measurements

342
Q

where would cisternae be found in a cell?

A

er, and golgi (not mito thats cristae)

343
Q

at which magnification is light m not suitable cuz resolution is too low?

A

1500x (resolution and magnification are inversely proportional ig)
also more wavelength = less resolution

344
Q

which organelle doesnt contain a partially permeable membrane?

A

ribosome (mit, golgi, lysosome have)

345
Q

function of nucleolus?

A

synthesis of rRna, not of ribosomal proteins

346
Q

comparison of phloem companion cell and b lymphocyte

A

both have proteins embedded in their cell surface membrane

347
Q

what do ribosome subunits consist of?

A

rRNA and protein

348
Q

diameter of a typical prokaryote?

A

750 nm - anything close to 1 micrometer

349
Q

which organelle does not contain nucleic acids?

A

golgi apparatus [no ribosomes! so no dna/rna cuz no protein synthesis]

350
Q

which structure can be seen only w em

A

csm

351
Q

greatest number of cells in a field of view?

A

go for the least magnification

352
Q

why do eukaryotes undergo division much slower than prokaryotes?

A

eukaroytes break down nuclear membrane during mitosis (time consuming
process i guess)

353
Q

which cell components contain mrna?

A

chloroplast, mitochondria, nucleus and rer [all have ribosomes]

354
Q

what leaves the nucleus through the pores in the nuclear envelope?

A

mRNA and ribosomes, not DNA

355
Q

is plasmodium a prokaryote or a eukaroyte?is plasmodium a prokaryote or a eukaroyte?

A

eukaroyte!!

356
Q

why do plant cells living in fresh wate rnot require vacuoles to expel excess
water?

A

plant cell walls limit cell size so laik it wont be bulged in the first place

357
Q

which statement ab the graticulae are correct vs which statements about the
stage mm are correct

A

both WONT measure actual length
graticule allows correct proportion // stage allows you to calibrate graticule
graticule wont change in size when going from 10x to 40x BUT STAGE WILL
CHZNGE IN SIZE

358
Q

which process occurs in a mature rbc?

A

active transport!
mature rbc’s do not have a nucleus so no cell division, transcription or
translation

359
Q

features of microvilli and root hairs?

A

root hair has vacuole
microvilli is the more than one present on cell
root hairs increase surface area

360
Q

which cell structures can form vesicles?

A

csm, golgi and er

361
Q

which organelles are required for the formation of lysosomes containing
hydrolytic enzymes?

A

mito, golgi and rer

362
Q

which types of rna are found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

A

mrna, rrna, trna (cuz both cells have ribosomes ig)

363
Q

how does the dna of eukaryotes differ from prokaryotes?

A

it has proteins attached to it and its linear!

364
Q

function of microtubules?

A

movement of cilia in bronchus, attachemnt of centromeres, moving secretory
vesicles around a cell

365
Q

glucose is not synthesised in

A

animal cells

366
Q

no need to calibrate graticule on x10 objective lens cuz

A

ur vieweing it in x40
ifyk

367
Q

vacuole contains

A

mineral ions

368
Q

photosynthesis prokaryotes do not have

A

a cellulose cell wall or chloroplasts

369
Q

nucleolus not really involved in

A

enzyme formation

370
Q

circulae dna of prokaryotes and chloroplast does not code for

A

cell walls

371
Q

a range of hydrolytic enzymes can be found in

A

mature plant vacuoels (can
carry out same function as lysosomes)

372
Q

anything with ribosomes can be a site of

A

protein synthesis

373
Q

there are no ribosomes attached to the inside of er

A

ONLY OUTSIDE

374
Q

root cells can have

A

plasmodesmata

375
Q

nucleus does not produce

A

ATP! [atp does not form part of the dna

376
Q

mitosis/cell division only occurs when

A

nucleus is present (so wont happen in
prokaryotes, hydrolysis will happen in both pro/euk)

377
Q

a glycoprotein is secreted AFTER

A

fusion of vesicle with csm (dont repeat the
mistake)

378
Q

a virus will either have

A

rna or dna (not both)

379
Q

a virus has no

A

carbohydrate, no phospholipid and no lipid (only protein)

380
Q

centrioles are made up of

A

protein molecules! [only biomol present in
centriole, nothing else]

381
Q

non-cellular =

A

not made up of cells for eg virus

382
Q

semi conservative replication of dna occurs wherever

A

dna is present

9700 (14 decks)

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