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Pathology 205 > Cell Pathology > Flashcards

Cell Pathology Flashcards

1
Q

Molecular Pathology

A

a science that encompasses all living phenomena and provide explanations for pathologic processes at the level of the molecules, atoms, and their elementary particles

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2
Q

in a resting cell, how are the essential components of the cell arranged?

A

components are arranged into aggregates chromatin

-a specialized organelle composed primarily of RNA known as the nucleolus

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3
Q

in dividing cells, how are the essential components of the cell arranged?

A

during mitosis - chromatin is restructured and the strands of DNA condense into chromosomes

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4
Q

what is an undiferentiated cell?

A

embryonic cells- not specialized yet

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5
Q

what does differential expression of genes allow to a cell?

A

to assume unique features and to perform specialized functions

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6
Q

describe protein synthesis

A

The genetic information encoded in the DNA is transcribed into the nuclear RNA

From the nuclear RNA, the message is transmitted by tRNA and mRNA into the cytoplasm

The ribosomal RNA (rRNA) serves as a template for translating the genetic messages into proteins

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7
Q

all human cells except these need a nucleus for survival

A

red blood cells and platelets

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8
Q

what is the nucleocytoplasmic (N:C) ratio

A

The ratio of the nucleus to the cytoplasm,

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9
Q

where is the N;C high

A

in undifferentiated embryonic cells, also in tumors - there is less cytoplasm and less organells

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10
Q

where is the N:C low

A

in differentiated cells of adult tissues- cytoplasm is more abundant and full of organelles

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11
Q

The cytoplasmic ground substance of all cells consists of an amorphous matrix called

A

hyaloplasm and a fibrillar meshwork called cytoskeleton

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12
Q

which is organelle is high in oxidative enzymes

A

mitochondria

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13
Q

what are small granules composed of RNA

A

ribosomes

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14
Q

ribosomes can be arranged into

A

aggregates that float freely in the cytoplasm, called polysomes or free ribosomes (make internal purpose)
attached to the membranes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) (to be delivered out of the cell

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15
Q

what is is endoplasmic reticulum

A

A meshwork of membranes that are in continuity with the outer plasma membranes on one side and the nuclear membrane on the other

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16
Q

what are the two form of the endoplasmic reticulum

A

rough: the site of protein synthesis
smooth: has complex functions, the most important of which are the catabolism (i.e., metabolic degradation) of drugs, hormones, and various nutrients, and the synthesis of steroid hormones

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17
Q

what is the golgi apparatus

A

proteins synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum pass through the Golgi apparatus - are biochemically modified before being packaged into secretory granules or lysosomes
- Glycoprotein and lipoproteins (i.e., proteins linked to a carbohydrate or lipid) are formed in the Golgi apparatus

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18
Q

where do you find acid hydrolase

A

lysosomes: are digestive enzymes - active in an acidic milieu (i.e., at low pH levels)

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19
Q

what are secondary lysosomes

A

The primary lysosomes fuse with other cytoplasmic vesicles

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20
Q

what are heterophagosomes

A

2ndary lysosomes

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21
Q

Hyaloplasm

A

The ground substance of the cytoplasm: no distinct structure and appears as an “empty” space on electron microscopic studies
Biochemically, consists predominantly of water, but it also contains minerals, proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids
It is traversed by a network of filaments that form the cytoskeleton

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22
Q

what are the three filaments of the cytoskeleton

A

microfilaments, composed of actin and myosin (5 nm in diameter)
microtubules, which are 22 nm thick and composed of tubulin
intermediate filaments, named because their diameter (10 nm) is intermediate between that of microfilaments and microtubules

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23
Q

what is the plasma membrane made of

A

proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates that are arranged in a polarized complex bilayer that has an internal and external surface

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24
Q

at which level does the simplest form of integration occur

A

the single cell, example t lymphocytes

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25
Q

what is autocrine stimulation

A

T lymphocytes secrete interleukin-2 (IL-2), a cytokine, which serves as lymphocytes’ and some other cells’ own growth factor

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26
Q

what is paracrine stimulation

A

release of mediators from one cell and their uptake by another. this is done by hormonal signals for more complex integration- one cell to another

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27
Q

what is biogenic amines

A

mediates paracrine stimulation ex: epinephrine, neuropepride hormones (glucagon,gastrin)

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28
Q

what is endocrine stimulation

A

hormones released into the blood circulation: for higher intergration because it travels to several organs ex. insulin

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29
Q

the essential minerals for cell homeostasis are

A

na, cl,k,fe

30
Q

the oligominerals for cell homeostasis are

A

zn,cu,se, mg

31
Q

what is the steady state of a cell

A

When an equilibrium between the cells and their environment is achieved and maintained

32
Q

what happens if the demand exceeds the capacity in a cell

A

it is irreparably damaged-die- usually cause by toxins, hypoxia/anoxia

33
Q

what happens to the cell when there is a reversible injury

A

it may swell

34
Q

what happens to a cells components when it swells

A

Swollen Mitochondria produce less energy
Switch to Anaerobic Metabolism (produces acid)
Degranulated RER produce less proteins

35
Q

how can you tell if the cell is irreversasbily damaged

A

The most characteristic are nuclear changes -

36
Q

what are the three forms of of nucleus damage

A

Pyknosis (Dense Chromatin)
Karyorrhexis (Nuclear Fragmentation)- all broken up-looks like cereal
Karyolysis (Nuclear dissolution

37
Q

how do cell injuries occur

A

The most important are hypoxia, toxins, microbial pathogens, endogenous mediators of inflammation and immune reactions, and genetic/metabolic disturbances

38
Q

hypoxia/anoxia occurs when…

A

Obstruction of the respiratory tubes (e.g. suffocation secondary to drowning)
Inadequate transport of oxygen across the respiratory surfaces of the lung (e.g. pneumonia)
Inadequate transport of oxygen in the blood (e.g. anemia)
An inability of the cell to use oxygen for cellular respiration (e.g. cyanide poisoning). Cyanide inhibits oxidative enzymes in the cell and prevents oxidative phosphorylation
also heart attack

39
Q

what are reoxygenation injuries

A

Relative oversupply of Oxygen may cause release of “Oxygen Free Radicals”
Include H2O2 and Superoxide (O2-)
Thought to be mechanism of injury for many diseases

40
Q

what do viruses do to a cell

A

Viruses
Disrupt Cellular processes
Disrupt Nuclear or Cytoplasmic membrane
Produce Foreign Antigen  Immune attack

41
Q

what are the examples of mediators of inflammation and immune reaction, how are they produced

A

lymphokines, cytokines, or complement proteins,

produced by the body in response to infection or in various immune reactions

42
Q

how do genetic/metabolic disturbances cause cell injury

A

cause disturbances of intermediate metabolism and subsequent accumulation of toxic metabolites

43
Q

can cells adapt to adverse stimuli

A

Once the cause is removed, most cells that have adapted to chronic stimulation revert to normalcy again
However, some forms of adaptation, especially those associated with cell loss
- e.g. bone loss in osteoporosis are irreversible

44
Q

what is atrophy

A

cell adaptation: Decrease in size of cell
Physiologic (commonly with age) (Brains, Bone)
Pathologic
Ischemia (limit in blood supply
Denervation
Cachexia (Malignancy, Malnutrition)

45
Q

what is hypertrophy

A

enlargement of cell, ex. Heart – Increase in bulk of Myocardium due to increased workload
High blood pressure
Outflow blockages (Aortic Stenosis)
Skeletal Muscle – Body Builders

46
Q

hyperplasia

A

increase in number of cells, ex:Usually due to Hormonal stimulation (Uterus, Prostate)
Chronic Irritation
Callus, Corns (Thickening of skin)

47
Q

what causes hypertrophy of the left ventricle

A

hypertension

48
Q

what are intracellular accumulations

A

involve both an overload and underexcretion/ underutilization:

49
Q

anthracosis

A

acuumulation of coal particles

50
Q

hemosiderosis

A

accumulation of blood-derived brown pigment)

51
Q

are heart or brain cells replacable

A

no

52
Q

necrosis

A

meaning death Exogenously induced

53
Q

apoptosis

A

programmed cell death

54
Q

autolysis

A

death of cells after death

55
Q

coagulative necrosis

A

Most common
Proteins are “Coagulated” (like a fried egg)
Marked by rapid inactivation of Hydrolytic enzymes
Heart, Liver, Kidneys

56
Q

liquifactive necrosis

A

Dissolving of Tissue (“Liquefies”)
Common in Brain
Other Necrotic Organs may later liquefy (eg Myocardium

57
Q

caseous necrosis

A

cheesy necrosis-tuberculosis

58
Q

what are the two different types of gangrene

A

wet- 2ndary Infection of Necrotic Tissue  2ndary Liquefaction

“Dry”
Desiccated (Dried out) Necrotic Tissue (like Egyptian mummies)

59
Q

the basic functional unit

A

a cell

60
Q

what does the nuclear contian

A

dna rna and nuclear proteins

61
Q

know 2-3 points on all cell organells

A

ok

62
Q

what are lysosomes

A

Membrane-bound digestive cytoplasmic organelles that are rich in lytic enzymes. They originate as small vesicles budding from enzymes on the maturing face of the Golgi apparatus

These primary lysosomes contain acid hydrolases, which are digestive enzymes - active in an acidic milieu (i.e., at low pH levels)

63
Q

what are the funtions of the cytoskeleton

A

The function of the cytoskeleton:
To maintain cell shape and enable the cell to adapt to external mechanical pressure
Also important for cell movement and the traffic of organelles

64
Q

what is steady state

A

state of balance between opposing pressures operating in and around a cell or tissue

65
Q

what does the cell produce

A

energy, waste, work/ end product

66
Q

what are 2 microbial pathogens

A

bacteria-toxins and viruses

67
Q

metaplasia

A

abnormal change in tissue

68
Q

dysplasia

A

an elergement of the organ or tissue

69
Q

apoptosis

A

Programmed cell death or “cell suicide”
Vital biological process – helps cell health and homeostasis
Complex signaling cascade induced
Caspase activation – caspase mediated protein cleavage – nucleosomal DNA fragmentation
Role in many disorders

70
Q

Southern Blot

A

One way of analyzing the genetic pattern’s in a persons DNA

the thing were it moves up and compare who the killer is

Pathology 205 (23 decks)

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