Causation and Casual Inference

Question 1

Something that brings about an effect or a result

Answer 1

Cause

Question 2

Two groups of scientists who look at the factors that influence outcomes

Answer 2

Biomedical scientists and epidemiologists

Question 3

A ______ is an association between categories of events or characteristics in which an alteration in the frequency and quality of a factor is followed by a change in the other

Answer 3

causal association

Question 4

Cause must precede effect

Answer 4

Temporality

Question 5

A change in the cause results in a change in the effect

Answer 5

Directionality

Question 6

Cause must precede effect

Answer 6

Temporality

Question 7

The presence of _____ may result in association with no causal link

Answer 7

confounders

Question 8

What are the steps in the process of casual inference?

Answer 8

• Determine the Validity of the Association
• Determine if the Observed Association is Causal

Question 9

The research is ____ if the estimate of the effect measure is accurate

Answer 9

internally valid

Question 10

Internal validity is not due to _____

Answer 10

systematic error

Question 11

What precedes external validity?

Answer 11

Internal validity

Question 12

External validity is not due to ____

Answer 12

random error (chanz <3)

Question 13

First step in establishing the causation of a disease

Answer 13

Descriptive study

Question 14

Cause-Effect: Causal Association
Effect-Cause: _____

Answer 14

Temporal Ambiguity

Question 15

Temporal ambiguity is a problem in retrospective studies, and more so in ______

Answer 15

cross-sectional studies

Question 16

Threats to validity

Answer 16

• Confounding
• Bias
• Chance

Question 17

A systematic error that results in an invalid or incorrect estimate of the measure of association

Answer 17

Bias

Question 18

Systematic error can be due to the researcher since it can arise from either from the ______ and/or
______

Answer 18

poor design and/or conduct of the study

Question 19

Selection Bias: Non-representative sample
Information Bias: Due to ____

Answer 19

inaccurate information

Question 20

Bias towards null: _____
Bias farther from the null: _____

Answer 20

Underestimation
Overestimation

Question 21

A distortion in a statistical estimate resulting from procedures used to select subjects and factors that influence participants in the study

Answer 21

Selection bias

Question 22

Sources of Selection Bias

Answer 22

• Attrition
• Response
• Self-selection
• Use of inappropriate groups in analytic studies

Question 23

Attrition happens in ______ studies

Answer 23

Prospective

Question 24

What is the strategy to control attrition?

Answer 24

Maintain high and similar follow-up rates for the study groups

Question 25

People who volunteer in studies are normally health-conscious, therefore triggering what source of selection bias?

Answer 25

self-selection

Question 26

What strategies may be employed to account for self-selection bias?

Answer 26

- For occupational research, select an appropriate comparison cohort (same occupational setting) - Obtain high participation rates among both cases and controls

Question 27

What strategy may be employed for the use of inappropriate groups in analytical studies?

Answer 27

Use identical selection criteria for both cases and controls

Question 28

Selection bias in case-control

Answer 28

Selection of case/control related to exposure status

Question 29

Selection Bias in Cohort (Retrospective Cohort)

Answer 29

Selection of exposed/unexposed is related to the development of the outcome

Question 30

Also known as observation bias, measurement error, misclassification bias

Answer 30

Information bias

Question 31

Sources of information Bias

Answer 31

- Participant (Trait Error) - Observer/tool (Method Error)

Question 32

These may happen in trait error of information bias

Answer 32

- Recall bias - Hawthorne effect - Social desirability

Question 33

Strategies for avoiding information bias

Answer 33

- Blind/mask parties as necessary - Train data collectors - Triangulate sources of data

Question 34

Types of Misclassification

Answer 34

- Non-differential - Differential

Question 35

Which type of misclassification is preferred?

Answer 35

Non-differential

Question 36

In non-differential misclassification, bias is always _____ null

Answer 36

towards

Question 37

Differential misclassification happens when?

Answer 37

methods of data collection are not uniform

Question 38

Uncontrollable force that seems to have no assignable cause and distorts the true value of an estimate.

Answer 38

Chanz (Chance)

Question 39

Chance is also called

Answer 39

Random error

Question 40

Minimizing random error increases ____

Answer 40

Precision

Question 41

Chance is estimated by ______

Answer 41

Significance level

Question 42

In box plot, if the line crosses the null value of 1, then what can we infer about its statistical significance?

Answer 42

not statistically significant

Question 43

What are Hill's Criteria for Causation?

Answer 43

- Strength of Association - Temporality - Consistency - Theoretical plausibility - Coherence - Specificity in the causes - Biologic Gradient - Analogy - Experimental Evidence