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Vet 212: Large Animal Disease > Cattle Diseases > Flashcards

Cattle Diseases Flashcards

1
Q

What vaccines are administered to cattle? How often?

A

BVDV: Bovine Viral Diarrhea
IBR: Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (Caused by Bovine Herpes Virus 1)
PI3: Parainfluenza 3
BRSV: Bovine Respiratory Syncytial Virus (decreases O2 exchange surface area)
Twice as calves, then once a year

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2
Q

What are zoonotic diseases for cows?

A

Cryptosporidiosis
Tuberculosis
Leptospirosis
Brucellosis
Rabies
Listeria

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3
Q

What protozoal disease causes Coccidia/Coccidiosis?

A

Eimeria
(zuernii, bovis, aubumensis)
Isospora spp.

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4
Q

What is the primary effect of coccidia?

A

Destruction of intestinal mucosa

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5
Q

True or False: Coccidia is host-specific with no cross-immunity between species of coccidia.

A

True

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6
Q

Coccidia is found primarily ____, but can be found where?

A

Young, confined animals - But is also present in most livestock to some degree

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7
Q

What are clinical signs of coccidia?

A
  • Bloody diarrhea
  • Tenesmus (straining to defecate)
  • Dehydration
  • Anemia and hypoproteinemia in severe cases
  • Can stunt growth
  • High fatality if CNS signs occur
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8
Q

What are treatments for coccidia?

A

Supportive care
Sulfonamides
Amprolium (coccidiostat), Monensin (Antibiotic)

Coccidia has a self-limiting life cycle.

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9
Q

What can be done to prevent or control Coccidia?

A

Proper sanitization
Avoid stressors
Preventative coccidiostats in feed

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10
Q

What is and what causes cryptospora/cryptosporidiosis?

A

Protozoal disease caused by Cryptosporidium parvum

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11
Q

How does cryptospora affect calves?

A

Neonatal calf disease - common cause of calf diarrhea

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12
Q

What is cryptospora commonly combined with?

A

E. coli or Salmonella

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13
Q

What percentage of dairy calves are infected with cryptospora?

A

Up to 70% of dairy calves, more if in contact with sheep/goat

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14
Q

True or False: Cryptospora is highly zoonotic.

A

TRUE

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15
Q

How is cryptospora transmitted?

A

Oocysts shed in feces
Environmental contamination

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16
Q

True or False: Cryptospora can be killed by any disinfecting agents.

A

False - Resistant to most disinfecting agents, can survive up to several months in the environment

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17
Q

How early can cryptosporidiosis appear in calves?

A

As early as 5 days old

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18
Q

Mild to moderate diarrhea is present for up to _ days or as long as it takes for intestinal lining to regenerate.

A

7 days

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19
Q

True or False: Diarrhea associated with cryptosporidium is self-limiting.

A

True

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20
Q

What can make cryptosporidiosis life-threatening?

A

Severe dehydration
Concurrent infections with viruses and bacteria

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21
Q

How is cryptosporidiosis diagnosed?

A

Testing for oocysts in feces

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22
Q

What is the treatment for cryptosporidiosis?

A

No licensed treatment
Supportive care: fluids, nutrition, electrolytes

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23
Q

How can cryptosporidiosis be prevented/controlled?

A

Proper sanitation
Hyperimmune Bovine Colostrum
No vaccine is available

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24
Q

What are the H.O.T. parasites?

A

Haemonchus
Ostertagia
Trichostronglyus trio

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25
Q

Which H.O.T. parasite is worst? Why?

A

Ostertagia
Larval inhibition: Life stage delayed until favorable conditions are present
Exist in abomasal wall (ostertagiasis)
Can cause edema and hypergastrinemia
Possibly contributes to abomasal ulcers

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26
Q

What is calf scours?

A

Diarrhea in calves

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27
Q

What causes calf scours?

A

Exact cause often unknown
Symptomatically treated

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28
Q

What are contributing factors to calf scours?

A

Lack of colostrum
Poorly vaccinated dams
Unhygienic conditions

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29
Q

What are nutritional factors or infectious problems related to calf scours?

A

Rotavirus
E. coli
Salmonella
Clostridium perfringens
(All except Rotavirus: spore-forming bacterial, resistant to environment)

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30
Q

True or False: Antibiotics are the first treatment of choice for calf scours.

A

False: Antibiotics are only given if the calf is overall sick - fever, possible sepsis, etc.

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31
Q

What is BVD(V)?

A

Bovine Viral Diarrhea (Virus)

BVD Mucosal Disease Complex

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32
Q

What are clinical signs of mild BVD?

A

Diarrhea, fever, milk drop, respiratory signs
Transient disease: Mild fever/respiratory signs

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33
Q

What are signs of severe BVD?

A

High fever, oral ulcerations, diarrhea, dehydration, interdigital lesions
Leukopenia/thrombocytopenia with hemorrhages
OFTEN FATAL

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34
Q

What type of virus is BVD?

A

RNA Virus in the Pestivirus group

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35
Q

Define cytopathic vs. noncytopathic biotypes.

A

Cytopathic: Virus kills infected cells (severe strains)
Noncytopathic: Nonapparent chronic infections (most common)

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36
Q

What happens if a pregnant dam contracts BVD?

A

Dam may experience spontaneous abortion or still birth if fetus is older (8-9 months)

Congenital malformations

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37
Q

What happens if a dam is infected with BVD and the fetus is between 4-6 months?

A

The calf is born with continuous infection - the calf with shed the virus for life, will have no immunity, and is susceptible to severe disease due to lack of immunity.

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38
Q

What is a PI calf?

A

“Persistently Infected”
Calves are infected with noncytopathic virus before birth, no immunity.
Calves will seem normal but will get severe disease if in contact with cytopathic strain.

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39
Q

What is mucosal disease?

A

A fatal form of BVDV
Can be acute or chronic

PI calves can become infected with cytopathic strain of BVDV or receive a modified live vaccine

Infections in calves can mutate into cytopathic strain from noncytopathic

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40
Q

What is the presentation of Mucosal Disease?

A

Eye lesions
Mucosal ulcerative lesions
Can look like reportable diseases such as Foot and Mouth disease, Rinderpest, Blue Tongue, Malignant Catarrhal Fever

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41
Q

How is BVD transmitted?

A
  • PI calves shedding virus into environment
  • Biting insects
  • Fomites
  • Semen
  • Biological products (blood, plasma, etc)
  • Wild ruminants (deer, elk, etc)
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42
Q

How is BVD diagnosed?

A
  • History
  • Clinical signs
  • Paired serum samples (active ilness vs 2-3 weeks post sample, virus isolation, PCR, acute vs. chronic)
  • Tissue/nasal swabs
  • Spleen, lymph nodes, and GI ulcerations (only at necropsy)
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43
Q

How is BVD controlled?

A
  • Testing embryo donor/recipients
  • Semen testing at lab prior to shipping
  • Screen for PI animals - skin biopsies for antigen detection (very conclusive), Virus can be isolated from serum or buffy coats, Elisa tests
  • Vaccinate non-PI calves
  • NO MLV IN PREGNANT ANIMALS - can cause spontaneous abortion
  • Biosecurity measures are VERY important - vaccination, cull all PI animals
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44
Q

How is BVD treated?

A

Supportive care
Mucosal disease usually results in euthanasia

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45
Q

What is Hardware Disease?

A

Cattle don’t completely masticate food when initially ingested (keratin is thick and they don’t notice), metallic object falls directly into the reticulum or is passed there from the rumen. Reticular contractions compress object against the wall, causing perforation.

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46
Q

What happens if hardware disease occurs during late term gestation?

A

Uterine pressure or abdominal pressure during parturition can cause penetration of reticular wall

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47
Q

Where does Hardware Disease commonly occur?

A

Chopped silage/hay from fields with rusty fences
Housing in an area where garbage blows into field
Old equipment parked nearby

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48
Q

What are potential risks with Hardware Disease?

A

Penetration of diaphragm, pericardium, heart
Liver abscesses

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49
Q

How is Hardware Disease characterized?

A

GI Stasis
Localized peritonitis
Pleuritis with possible pericarditis

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50
Q

What are the clinical signs of Hardware Disease?

A
  • Rumenoreticular atony (abnormal relaxation of muscle)
  • Decreased milk production
  • Decreased fecal output
  • Shallow respirations
  • Fever
  • Arched back, relunctance to move
  • Abducted elbows
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51
Q

What is the “Scooch and Grunt” test?

A

Two people hold a broom or long object behind the elbows on each side and push up
The cow will grunt if positive

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52
Q

What are the clinic signs of pleuritis and pneumonia?

A
  • Tachypnea
  • Tachycardia
  • Fever
  • Shallow respirations
  • Muffled lung/heart sounds
  • Evidence of CHF
  • Sudden death
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53
Q

How is Hardware Disease diagnosed?

A
  • Clinical signs
  • History
  • Radiographs
  • Metal detectors
  • Ultrasound of thorax and abdomen
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54
Q

What are the treatments for Hardware Disease?

A

Non-surgical: Magnets, antibiotics
Surgical: Rumenotomy/removal of object

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55
Q

How is Hardware Disease managed?

A

Avoid the problem by giving rumen magnets to yearling stock

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56
Q

What is the official name for “Bloat”?

A

Rumen Tympany

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57
Q

Where is the rumen located?

A

Left side

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58
Q

What is Frothy Bloat?

A

Primary ruminal tympany
* Fermentation gases are trapped in froth within the rumen
* Cannot belch/eructate
* Caused by plants high in soluble leaf proteins, saponins, hemicellulose, such as succulent forages (alfalfa, clover, high grain)
* Saliva normally breaks down the rumen froth

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59
Q

What is Free Gas Bloat?

A

Secondary Ruminal Tympany
* Occurs secondary to other issues
* Esophageal obstruction
* Vagal indigestion
* Tetanus
* Grain overload/ruminal atony

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60
Q

What are the clinical signs of Bloat?

A
  • Within one hour of turnout onto lush pasture or break in to food room
  • Ruminal distention of paralumbar fossa
  • Dyspnea
  • Grunting
  • Head extensions
  • Urination
  • Collapse
  • Death
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61
Q

What is the treatment for Rumen Tympany?

A
  • Emergency rumenotomy
  • Orogastic tube
  • Trocar/placement: a large metal instrument with a cutting point and an enclosed tube - used to relieve gas
  • Antifoaming agents: Vegetable oil, sodium sulfate (DSS, docusate)
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62
Q

How do you prevent Bloat in cattle?

A
  • Add antifoaming agents to rations
  • Increased roughage
  • Pasture control
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63
Q

What are other names for Bovine Respiratory Disease Complex?

A
  • Enzootic Pneumonia of Calves
  • Shipping Fever Pneumonia
    (Enzootic: always around, focus on prevention rather than eradication)
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64
Q

What are contributing factors to BRDC?

A
  • Environment: hygienic conditions, population
  • Viral/bacterial respiratory disease
  • Feedlot animals: in close contact/shared airflow with other animals
65
Q

What can cause BRDC?

A
  • Initial stress that leads to immunosuppression
  • Viral infections: BVDV, PI3, BRSV, BHV1
  • Bacterial infections secondary to viral infection (Mannheimia haemolytica, Pasteurella multocida, Histophilus somnus
66
Q

How can BRDC be controlled/prevented?

A
  • Reduce stress
  • Vaccinate prior to transport
  • Feed changes done gradually
  • Minimize dust exposure - irritants due to urine, fecal contamination
67
Q

What bacteria is responsible for Bovine Tuberculosis?

A

Mycobacterium (slow bacterial reproduction, intracellular)

68
Q

True or False: Bovine tuberculosis is only transmissible to cattle.

A

False: Zoonotic.

69
Q

True or False: Tuberculosis is incubated very quickly and symptoms appear rapidly.

A

False: This organism has a long, silent incubation period and many are asymptomatic carriers.

70
Q

What are the most common strains of Mycobacterium?

A

M. bovis
M. tuberculosis

71
Q

How is Bovine Tuberculosis spread?

A

Mostly through aerosol, but sputum dispersed onto another object can pass to animal that ingests it

72
Q

What are some ways that Bovine Tuberculosis is killed?

A

Killed by sunlight
Pasteurization
Phenolic compounds

73
Q

True or False: Outbreaks of tuberculosis that occur in wildlife remain among the wildlife population.

A

False: Tuberculosis outbreaks in the wild can be passed to cattle.

74
Q

What are some issues with eradicating Tuberculosis?

A
  • It is difficult to identify infected individuals
  • All affected cows need to be culled
  • Wildlife population can be a reservoir for TB infection
  • Large dairies are not feasible to depopulate
75
Q

How is Bovine Tuberculosis diagnosed?

A

Purified Protein Derivative (PPD) - injected intradermally into cow

76
Q

What is “Hypocalcemia”?

A

Periparturient Paresis (Also known as “Milk Fever”) - Sudden downward shift of calcium in milk, causing calcium deficiency

77
Q

What is the presentation of hypocalcemia in cattle?

A
  • Can be acute to peracute
  • Afebrile
  • Flaccid paralysis (without obvious cause)
  • Post freshening distress
78
Q

When do you see clinical signs of cattle hypocalcemia?

A

Within 72 hours of freshening

79
Q

What are the three stages of cattle hypocalcemia?

A

Stage One: Ambulatory, excitable, ataxic with tremors
Stage Two: Sternal, dry nose, lethargy, anorexia, cold, tachycardia, smooth muscle paralysis, head turned to flank
Stage Three: Loss of consciousness, coma, death

80
Q

How is cattle hypocalcemia treated?

A
  • IV Calcium
  • Phosphorus and magnesium sometimes included
  • Response is usually immediate
81
Q

What are other names for Ketosis?

A

Ketonemia
Acetonemia

82
Q

True or False: Ketosis is mainly associated with dairy cows.

A

True

83
Q

When does ketosis occur in cattle?

A

After calving, in early lactation up to peak lactation (42 days postpartum)

84
Q

What happens during ketosis?

A

Glucose demand is increased, fat mobilization leads to increased non-esterified fatty acids, converting into ketons in the liver during gluconeogenesis

85
Q

What are the clinical signs of ketosis?

A

Two forms:
Wasting Form: anorexia, weight loss, depression
Nervous form: pica, licking, incoordination, abnormal gait, head pressing, bellowing, aggression

86
Q

What is associated with ketosis?
A. Fatty Liver
B. Starvation
C. All of the above

A

C. All of the above

87
Q

What cows are at risk for ketosis?

A

Cows with high BCS before calving

88
Q

How is ketosis diagnosed in cattle?

A

Recognition of risk factors in a herd
Clinical signs
Smell for acetone (in urine, milk, breath)
Rule out other diseases
“Cowside Test” - test milk

89
Q

How is ketosis treated?

A
  • Resolve hypoglycemia and reduce ketones
  • IV dextrose
  • Glucocorticoids, propylene glycol
  • Insulin (extra label, unapproved)
90
Q

How is ketosis prevented?

A

Proper nutrition
Addition of propylene glycol to rations

91
Q

Is Leptospirosis zoonotic?

A

Yes.

92
Q

What type of bacteria is Leptospirosis?

A

Spirochete bacteria with 20 species

93
Q

True or False: Leptospirosis can only survive in special environments.

A

False: Lepto survives in most environments.

94
Q

How is leptospirosis transmitted?

A
  • Skin or mucous membrane contact with urine or contaminated water
  • Ingestion
  • Sexually transmitted (venereal)
95
Q

How does Leptospirosis infect the host?

A

It is spread by the lymphatic system.

96
Q

The immune system can clear Leptospirosis from all areas in the body except:

A

Brain, eyes, genital tract, proximal renal tubules

97
Q

What can happen if Leptospirosis is introduced to a naive herd?

A

Late term abortions
Still births
Retention of Fetal Membranes (RFM)
Decrease in fertility

98
Q

What happens in dairy cattle when infected with Leptospirosis?

A

Bovine babesiosis in calves with hemoglobinuria
Mastitis
Abortions, still births

99
Q

What are the clinical signs of Leptospirosis?

A

Clinical signs are variable
Patients can be asymptomatic or exhibit:
Renale failure
Fever
Abortion
Icterus
Death

100
Q

Where in the body does Leptospirosis live?

A

Kidneys and reproductive organs

101
Q

How is Leptospirosis diagnosed?

A

Serum IgM or IgG
Compare acute/convalescent titers
Single titer > 1:800
Carriers and shedders won’t have diagnostic titers
Identified organisms in urine or tissues

102
Q

What is the treatment for Leptospirosis?

A

Tetracyclines

103
Q

What is the withdrawal time for tetracycline in dairy cows?

A

96 hours

104
Q

How can Leptospirosis be prevented?

A

Proper management and vaccinations
Titers are protective up to 12 months

105
Q

What are other names for Brucellosis?

A

Bang’s Disease
Contagious Abortion

106
Q

What is Brucellosis?

A

Disease resulting in abortions - RFM (Retained fetal membrane), orchitis

107
Q

Is Brucellosis zoonotic?

A

Yes.

108
Q

What symptoms can Brucellosis cause in humans?

A

Undulant fever

109
Q

Who is at risk for Brucellosis?

A

Animals: Buffalo, pigs, sheep, goat, dogs, elk, horses

Humans: Immunosuppressed individuals and children

110
Q

Who is at risk for Brucellosis?

A

Animals: Buffalo, pigs, sheep, goat, dogs, elk, horses

Humans: Immunosuppressed individuals and children

111
Q

What is the presentation of Brucellosis in dairy cattle?

A

Abortion storms in unvaccinated cattle
Weak/stillborn calves
RFM
Decreased milk production

112
Q

How is Brucella shed?

A

Milk
Uterine Fluids
Semen

113
Q

How long can Brucella live in the environment?

A

2 months, if not exposed to direct sunlight

114
Q

How is Brucella diagnosed?

A

Serology or recovery of Brucella from fetal membranes, aborted fetus, milk
Serum or milk agglutination tests
Elisa to detect antibodies in milk and serum
Screening tests (Brucella milk ring test, serum screening tests)

115
Q

What is the treatment for Brucella?

A

No treatment
Test and slaughter
Brucella-free areas are attainable
Vaccination is mandatory in replacement heifers less than 6 months of age
Eradication Program: Vaccinated animals must have ear tag or tattoo

116
Q

What are wildlife reservoirs for Brucella?

A

Deer, elk, bison, moose

117
Q

What is Johne’s Disease?

A

Paratuberculosis: Chronic contagious granulomatous enteritis
“Tuberculosis of guts”

118
Q

True or False: Paratuberculosis is easily managed.

A

False: Paratuberculosis is very difficult to control.

119
Q

Paratuberculosis affects which of these:
A. Ruminants
B. Camelids
C. Rabbits
D. Foxes
E. Weasels
F. Non-human Primates
G. All of the above

A

G. All of the above

120
Q

What bacteria does Paratuberculosis come from?

A

Mycobacterium avium, subspecies paratuberculosis

121
Q

True or False: Paratuberculosis is fully eradicated in the US.

A

False: Up to 50% of dairy herds in the US are still affected

122
Q

How is Paratuberculosis spread?

A

Spread in feces, colostrum, milk
Can be spread asymptomatically

123
Q

How long can Paratuberculosis live on pastures?

A

Over 1 year

124
Q

When does infection from Paratuberculosis occur?

A

As calves, but clinical signs appear over 2 years of age

125
Q

Where is Paratuberculosis found?

A

In the macrophages of the gut lining, which causes enteritis
Macrophages cannot consume the bacteria

126
Q

What are the clinical signs of Paratuberculosis?

A

Persistent diarrhea (can begin as intermittent) -> Inappetence -> weight loss -> Debilitation -> Death

127
Q

How is Paratuberculosis diagnosed?

A

Very difficult to detect due to intracellular nature
Detection is done in feces
PCR is the best option
Cultures are very slow
Skin testing, serum antibody testing
Multiple tests combined can lead to confirmation
False negatives will be present
Definitive diagnosis: necropsy with culture and histopath

128
Q

What is the treatment for Paratuberculosis?

A

There is no treatment, only prevention.

129
Q

How is Paratuberculosis controlled?

A

Sanitation
Remove young immediately after birth
Feed colostrum from other source or that has been pasteurized
Raise separate from adults
Routine testing of adults and replacement animals
Quarantine of replacement animals
Vaccination only limits disease

130
Q

What is IBK? How is it spread?

A

Infectious Bovine Keratoconjunctivitis
“Bovine Pink Eye”
(Moraxella bovis)

Acute disease spread via flies

131
Q

Where is IBK most common?

A

Dry, dusty conditions and bright sunlight

132
Q

What are the clinical signs of IBK?

A

Blepharospasm
Photophobia
Epiphoria
Corneal ulcers

133
Q

How is IBK treated?

A

Antibiotics (Tetracyclines)
Conunctival flaps/third eyelid flaps
Eye patches for affected eyes

134
Q

How is IBK prevented?

A

Fly control
Vaccination
Separation of infected animals

135
Q

What is Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy?

A

Mad Cow Disease - progressive neurological disease
A prion (infectious protein)
Widely accepted as caused by a mutant form of scrapie (prion) found in sheep

136
Q

What are the clinical signs of BSE?

A

Nervousness
Behavioral changes
Hypersensitivity to external stimuli
Kicking/twitching
Aggressive pawing at ground
Hind limb ataxia
Progressive weight loss
Decreased milk production

137
Q

True or False: There is no treatment or vaccine for BSE.

A

True. Federal surveillance plans are in place to detect BSE in cattle populations.

138
Q

What is the scientific name for Polio?

A

Cerebrocortical necrosis

139
Q

What animals are affected by Polio?

A

Cattle
Sheep
Goats
Deer
Camelids

140
Q

What can cause Polio?

A

Low thiamine
High sulfur intake
Toxic or metabolic diseases

141
Q

What can cause decreased thiamine?

A

Dietary intake
Ingestion of thiaminases from plants
Thiaminases produced by gut bacteria

142
Q

What can cause increased sulfur intake?

A

Dietary excesses in feed and water sources
Increased ruminal sulfides from bacteria
(Hydrogen sulfide gas = neurotoxic)
Water from deep wells/springs that contain high levels of sulfur

143
Q

What can cause increased sulfur intake?

A

Dietary excesses in feed and water sources
Increased ruminal sulfides from bacteria
(Hydrogen sulfide gas = neurotoxic)
Water from deep wells/springs that contain high levels of sulfur

144
Q

What are clinical signs of Polio?

A

Blindness
Staggers
Hypermetric gait (“Goose stepping”)
Recumbency
Tonic-clonic (Grand Mal) seizures
Coma
Head pressing
Opisthotonos (backward arching of head, neck, and spine)
Bruxism

145
Q

How is Polio diagnosed?

A

Clinical signs
Necropsy (Through autofluorescent brain tissue)

146
Q

How is Polio treated?

A

Thiamine
Recovery is usually complete within 24 hours of initiation
Test all sources for sulfur

147
Q

True or False: Mastitis is the most common disease of dairy cows.

A

True

148
Q

What is the morbidity of mastitis in cows?

A

38%

149
Q

What is the likelihood of a cow contracting mastitis?

A

3/10 cows will have clinical mastitis.

150
Q

What bacterias are related to mastitis?

A

Environmental:
Streptococcus ubris/dysgalactia
Contagious:
Streptococcus agalactia
Corynebacterium
Staphylococcus aureus
Mycoplasma

151
Q

How can mastitis be controlled?

A

Management (teat dips, dry cow therapy, environmental contaminants, milking hygiene)
Nutrition
Bedding
Milking machine function
Prevention of opportunistic infections
National Mastitis Council

Dry Cow Therapy: Treat with abx at dry off

152
Q

How can mastitis be controlled?

A

Management (teat dips, dry cow therapy, environmental contaminants, milking hygiene)
Nutrition
Bedding
Milking machine function
Prevention of opportunistic infections
National Mastitis Council

Dry Cow Therapy: Treat with abx at dry off

153
Q

What is the subclinical classification of mastitis?

A

Increased SCC, milk and mammary glands normal, detect with CMT
(Common bacteria Strep. agalactia and Staph. aureus)

154
Q

What is the clinical classification of mastitis?

A

Acute/acute gangrenous
Chronic
Grossly abnormal milk
Mammary glands abnormal, swollen or painful
Gait abnormalities

155
Q

Describe acute clinical mastitis.

A

Milk is normal but may have flakes or clots. Signs are systemic.

156
Q

Describe acute gangrenous mastitis.

A

Uncommon in cows
Severe systemic illness resulting in anorexia, dehydration, fever, depression
Common agent: Staphylococcus or Clostridium
Red swollen glands, teats become cold, blue teats/udder

157
Q

Chronic mastitis presents as?

A

No clinical signs for long periods of time
Increased SCC
Periodic flakes in milk
Gradual scar tissue into gland
Decreased milk production
Common pathogens: Strep. agalactia, Staph. aureus, Salmonella

158
Q

When does prolapse usually occur?

A

Last semester of pregnancy

159
Q

What are the grades of prolapse?

A

Grade I: Intermittent prolapse
Grade II: Continuous acute prolapse of vaginal tissue
Grade III: Continuous acute prolapse of vaginal, bladder and cervical tissue
Grade IV: Prolapse of grade II or II with resultant trauma, infection, or necrosis

Vet 212: Large Animal Disease (6 decks)

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