Carbohydrates, Fats, Proteins, Vitamins, Minerals, Water Flashcards
The Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) for carbohydrates is ____ for adults between 19 and 30 years of age.
130 g/day
The Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (AMDR) for carbohydrates is ____% of kcal intake per day as primarily complex carbohydrates
45-65%
_____ are sugars composed of single carbohydrate units.
Monosaccharides
Glucose, fructose, and galactose are all ____saccharides.
monosaccharides
____consist of two single carbohydrates bound together.
Disaccharides
Sucrose, maltose, and lactose are _____saccharides.
disaccharides
Sucrose, maltose, and lactose are _____saccharides.
disaccharides
______ consist of many units of monosaccharides joined together.
Polysaccharides
Starch and fiber are food sources of ____saccharides, whereas glycogen is a ____saccharide stored in the liver and muscles.
polysaccharide
If enough carbohydrate is provided to meet the energy needs of the body, protein can be spared or saved to use for specific protein functions. This service of carbohydrates is called the ______
protein-sparing effect
Enzymes specific for disaccharides (lactase for lactose, sucrase for sucrose, maltase for maltose) are secreted by the _____ brush-border cells, which then ___ disaccharides into monosaccharides.
small intestine’s; hydrolyze
Amylase in saliva begins the ___ of starch into the simpler carbohydrate intermediary forms of dextrin and maltose
hydrolysis
The process of converting glucose to glycogen is ______
glycogenesis
____ is carbohydrate energy stored in the liver and in muscles
Glycogen
Glycogenolysis
Process by which glycogen (stored in liver and muscle tissue) is converted back to glucose
Blood glucose homeostasis is between ____ mg/dL
70 and 100
Gluconeogenesis
The process of producing glucose from non-carbohydrate sources (like fat)
True or False: Blood glucose can be sourced from fat, protein, and carbohydrates
True
_____ are created when fatty acids are broken down for energy when sufficient carbohydrates are unavailable
Ketone bodies
insulin
- main anabolic hormone in the body
- lowers blood glucose levels
- promotes absorption of glucose from blood into liver, skeletal muscle cells, or fat
This anabolic hormone is produced in the beta cells of the pancreas
insulin
islets of Langerhans (aka pancreatic islets)
Regions of the pancreas that contain its endocrine cells; responsible for producing insulin
- Main catabolic hormone
- Produced by alpha cells of the pancreas
- Raises the concentration of glucose and fatty acids in the bloodstream, and is
Glucagon
____ is the ranking of foods according to the level to which a food raises blood glucose levels compared with a reference food (100 being the highest)
Glycemic index
Factors that affect Glycemic Index
- The physical form such as a baked potato compared with a mashed potato
- The fat and protein content in addition to carbohydrate, which slows digestion
- The ripeness, such as in fruits and vegetables, which increases glucose content
- The fiber content, which slows digestion
- The botanic variety of a food, such as the different glycemic indexes of rice species
_____ considers the total glycemic index effect of a mixed meal or dietary plan.
Glycemic load
Fructose and galactose are both converted into glucose by the ___
liver
Glucose + galactose =
lactose
Glucose + glucose =
maltose
Glucose + fructose =
Sucrose (table sugar)
The DRI report on carbohydrates suggests that added sugars be kept to _____% or less of energy intake on a daily basis.
25
True or False. A diet high in sugar are is a risk factor for diabetes
FALSE
A disadvantage of ____ is that if large quantities are consumed, they may ferment in the intestinal tract because of their slower absorption rate. This fermentation may cause gas and diarrhea.
sugar alcohols (e.g. sorbitol, mannitol, and xylitol)
Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a rare genetic disorder that makes people unable to break down down excess phenylalanine. Therefore, people who suffer from it should not consume _____
aspartame - whic his formed by the bonding of the amino acids phenylalanine and aspartic acid.
______ consists of substances in plant foods, including carbohydrates and lignin, that for the most part cannot be digested by humans.
Dietary fiber
Pectin, mucilage, psyllium seed husk, guar gum are examples of this
Soluble fiber
Cellulose and hemicellulose are examples of _____
insoluble dietary fiber
The risk of obesity, constipation, hemorrhoids, diverticular disease, and colon cancer may be decreased by regular consumption of sufficient amounts of ______
fiber
When used as a supplement, excessive quantities of _____ can overwhelm the GI tract and lead to blockages in the small intestine and colon.This is a serious medical condition that fortunately is rare.
fiber
An Adequate Intake (AI) of dietary fiber is about 25 to 38 g per day, depending on age and gender (NRC, 2006). Most Americans consume much lower levels of fiber; adults often average less than ____ of fiber per day
16
____is the replacement of nutrients to the level that was present before processing.
Enrichment
____ flour contains added thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and iron
enriched
True or False: Zinc, magnesium, vitamin E, and dietary fiber are added to enriched flour
False. These nutrients are removed during the refining process but not added back in later.
Approximately 95% of the lipids in foods and in our bodies are in the ____ form of fat
triglyceride
How many Calories are in 1 g of fat, carbohydrate, and protein, respectively?
9, 4, 4
____ slows down digestion because of the hormones released in response to its presence in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, causing us to feel full and satisfied for longer after eating (increased satiety)
Fat
A substance that works by being soluble in water and fat at the same time
emulsifier
Fat-soluble vitamins
A, D, E, and K
Polyunsaturated components of trigylceridies that cannot be made in the body and must be consumed in the diet
essential fatty acids (EFAs)
____ are necessary materials for making compounds, such as prostaglandins, that regulate many body functions, including blood pressure, blood clotting through platelet aggregation, gastric acid secretions, and muscle secretions. The overall strength of cell membranes depends on ___
essential fatty acids (EFAs)
Overt symptoms of ___ deficiency include skin lesions and scaliness (eczema) caused by increased permeability, which leads to membrane breakdown throughout the body. Inflammation of epithelial tissue and increased susceptibility to infections throughout the body are also possible. This form of defiency is very rare.
essential fatty acids (EFAs)
The following populations are at risk of this rare deficiency: (1) Older patients with peripheral vascular disease (a potential complication of diabetes mellitus), (2) patients with fat malabsorption, such as cystic fibrosis, and (3) patients receiving treatment for protein malnutrition with low-fat, high-protein diets. Individuals recovering from serious accidents and burns are also at risk.
essential fatty acids (EFAs) deficiency
Body fat cells contain nearly pure fat. Like food, it is also in the form of _____.
triglycerides
A substance composed largely of fatty tissue, called ____, covers nerve cells.
myelin
Besides energy, what other functions does fat serve in the body?
Organ protection and insulation
This kind of lipid forms part of all cell membrane structure and serves as an emulsifier to keep fats dispersed in body fluids.
phosholipid
The main phospholipid in the body
lecithin
____ are critical components of complex regulatory compounds in our bodies and provide basic material to make bile, vitamin D, sex hormones, and cells in brain and nerve tissue
Sterols
The liver synthesizes ____ to make bile
cholesterol
_____ are the largest class of lipids found in food and body fat.
Triglycerides
A compound consisting of three fatty acids and one glycerol molecule
Triglyceride
Hydrogenation
Process by which an unsaturated fat becomes artificially saturated by forcing carbon atoms to break double bonds and bond with hydrogen atoms
A carbon chain with only one unsaturated double bond
Monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA)
These fats are characterized by the presence of a double bond, three atoms away from the terminal methyl group in their chemical structure.
omega-3s
These fats have a final carbon-carbon double bond in the n-6 position, that is, the sixth bond, counting from the methyl end
omega-6s
linoleic acid
Main member of omega-6 family
linolenic acid
Main member of omega-3 family
This fatty acid is derived from linolenic acid and abundant in fish
Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)
Omega-3 fatty acids appear to lower the risk of heart disease by ______
Reducing the blood clotting process; clots can cause blockages in the arteries in the presence of plaques
These fats are composed of two fatty acids and a phosphate group
Phospholipids
This phospholipid contains two fatty acids, with the third spot filled by a molecule of choline plus phosphorus
lecithin
_____ are carbon rings intermeshed with side chains of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, making them more complex than triglycerides
Sterols, including cholesterol
Like phospholipids, ____ are synthesized by the body and are not essential nutrients
sterols
Dietary cholesterol accounts for ____ of the cholesterol in the body.
about 25%
True or False: The only food sources of cholesterol are animal
True
Fats entering the duodenum initiate the release of ____ hormone from the duodenum walls, which stimulates the gallbladder to release bile into the small intestine. The bile emulsifies fats to facilitate digestion.
cholecystokinin (CCK)
This enzyme is the primary digestive enzyme that breaks triglycerides into fatty acids, monoglycerides, and glycerol molecules in the small intestine
pancreatic lipase
To aid fat digestion in those patients with malabsorption, synthetically manufactured _____ may be incorporated into a patient’s dietary intake. However, they should not entirely replace dietary fat because they do not contain EFAs.
medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs)
Once through the membrane wall, fatty acids and glycerol combine back into triglycerides. These triglycerides are then incorporated into ___, which are the first lipoproteins formed after absorption of lipids from food
chylomicrons
At the cell membranes, the triglycerides in the chylomicrons are broken down into fatty acids and glycerol with assistance from an enzyme called _____
lipoprotein lipase
Term for the anabolism (synthesis) of lipids, which results in the formation of triglycerides, phospholipids, cholesterol, and prostaglandins for use throughout the body.
lipogenesis
If fat catabolizes quickly because of a lack of carbohydrate (glucose) for energy, the liver cells form these intermediate products from the partial oxidation of fatty acids
ketone bodies
Fats are stored in our fat cells as ____, just like how glucose is stored as glycogen in our liver and muscles
triglycerides
This important intermediary byproduct of metabolism is formed from the breakdown of glucose, fatty acids, and certain amino acids. This substance then enters a series of reactions called the TCA (tricarboxylic acid) cycle, which ultimately releases ATP.
acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA)
_____ is regulated mainly by insulin, growth hormone, and the adrenal cortex hormones; adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which stimulates secretion of more hormones; and glucocorticoids, which affect food metabolism.**
Lipid metabolism **(re-do this part after quiz for more clarity)
The Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs), based on Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDRs), recommend that we eat _____ of our kcal intake from fats, with an increased consumption of ____ and a limit of 10% or less of kcal from ____
20% to 35%, omega-3s, saturated fats
Most Americans consume _____% of total energy intake as fat
35-40%
When vegetable oil, which is polyunsaturated, is completely _____, it becomes a white, waxy, or plastic-like substance called vegetable shortening. Because it is saturated with hydrogens, the body processes it as if it were a saturated fat.
hydrogenated
Although it stabilizes fat, hydrogenation changes the structure of some of the fatty acids from cis fatty acids to _____
trans fatty acids
Of the average 35% of kcal consumed as fat by Americans, only about 2% to 7% of total kcal comes from ___
trans fats
Trans fat consumption appears to increase risk for CVD. Risk is increased because the trans fat raises the blood cholesterol component ______ that delivers cholesterol throughout the body and, while doing so, may contribute to plaque formation in arteries. Trans fat also decreases the blood cholesterol component _____ that removes excess and used cholesterol from the body.
(low-density lipoproteins [LDLs]); (high-density lipoproteins [HDLs])
Several U.S. cities have banned restaurants from using this kind of fat
artificial trans fats
A healthy way to preserve polyunsaturated fats without hydrogenation is through the use of ___ additives, like vitamin E (tocopherol) and vitamin C (ascorbic acid).
antioxidant
These compounds transport fats in the circulatory system. They contain a mix of lipids—including triglycerides, fatty acids, phospholipids, cholesterol, and small amounts of other steroids and fat-soluble vitamins—that are covered with a protein outer layer, which allows them to travel through the bloodstream.
Lipoproteins
The amounts of ___ and ___ determine the density or weight of the lipoprotein. HDLs contain more ___
fat; protein; protein
Very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) leaves the liver cells full of fats and lipid components to transfer newly made (endogenous) triglycerides to the cells. ___ forms from VLDL because density increases as fats and lipids are released on their journey through the body.
LDL
____ is a kind of lipoprotein that transports absorbed fats from the intestinal wall to the liver cells.
Chylomicrons
In contrast to the delivery functions of the first three lipoproteins, ___ is formed within cells to remove cholesterol from the cell, bringing it to the liver for disposal.
HDL
A total blood cholesterol reading reflects the level of cholesterol contained in ____
LDL and HDL.
Deposits of fatty substances, including cholesterol, that attach to arterial walls
Plaques
True or False: Dietary cholesterol raises blood cholesterol
False
____ generally raise blood cholesterol by providing the liver with the best building blocks for making cholesterol.***
Saturated fatty acids **
____, a carbohydrate extracted from seaweed, has been used for centuries to thicken foods.
Carrageenan
____, which stands for short- and long-chain triglyceride molecules, is made in the laboratory and provides sensory qualities with reduced energy content (5 kcal/g vs. 9 kcal/g).***
Salatrim
A disadvantage is this fat replacer is that it passes through the gut swiftly, possibly causing abdominal cramping and loose stools and loss of fat-soluble nutrients such as vitamins and carotenoids.
olestra
The following are all examples of \_\_\_\_\_\_: Histidine Isoleucine Leucine Lysine Methionine Phenylalanine Threonine Tryptophan Valine
essential amino acids
The following are all examples of \_\_\_\_\_\_: Alanine Arginine Aspartic acid Cysteine Cystine Glutamic acid Glutamine Glycine Proline Serine Tyrosine
non-essential amino acids
Each cell constructs or synthesizes the proteins it needs. To build proteins, the cell must have access to all 20 amino acids. This available supply of amino acids is in the metabolic _____
amino acid pool
Non-essential amino acids are all synthesized in the ___
liver
This kind of bond occurs at the point at which the carboxyl group of one amino acid is bound to the amino group of another amino acid
peptide
The ____ structure level of proteins affects the shape of the chain of amino acids; they may be straight, folded, or coiled.
secondary
The ____ structure of proteins results when the polypeptide chain is so coiled that the loops of the coil touch, forming strong bonds within the chain itself.
tertiary
At the ___ structural level, proteins contain more than one polypeptide chain.
quaternary
At the ___ structural level, peptide bonds are formed between amino acids
primary
Denaturing proteins involves disruptions of these levels of structure
secondary, tertiary, and quatenary
Heat, radiation, an organic solvent, a strong acid or base can do this to proteins
Denaturation
These protein enzymes, produced by the stomach and pancreas, hydrolyze proteins into smaller and smaller peptides until individual amino acids are ready for absorption
Proteases
True or False: Chemical digestion of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins begins in the mouth.
False. The chemical digestion of protein begins in the stomach.
This important gastric protease, is produced only during infancy. It functions with calcium to thicken or coagulate the milk protein casein; thickening slows the movement of milk nutrients from the stomach, allowing additional digestion time.
Rennin
____, an inactive form of the gastric protease pepsin, is secreted by the stomach mucosa. Pepsin becomes activated when it mixes with ____
Pepsinogen; hydrochloric acid
Trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase are all _____
Pancreatic enzymes that break down proteins
Aminopeptidase and dipeptidase are both ___
Intestinal enzymes that break down proteins
Absorption of amino acids occurs through the intestinal walls by means of competitive active transport that requires this vitamin as a carrier
vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)
Liver cells begin the process of protein catabolism through ___, which removes an amino group (NH2), which is converted into ammonia (NH3), and then urea, which is later excreted in urine. The process also produces a keto acid, which can enter the TCA cycle to make energy
Deamination; urea
Positive nitrogen balance occurs when more nitrogen is retained in the body than is excreted. The nitrogen is used to form new cells for ____
growth or healing.
These studies are used to determine the protein requirements of the body throughout the life cycle and to assign value to the protein quality of foods to determine their biologic value
Nitrogen-balance studies
Oxygen is stored in our muscles in this protein carrier
myoglobin
Complete protein
Contains all nine EAAs in sufficient quantities that best support growth and maintenance of our bodies
Biologic value (i.e. bioavailability), amino acid score, and protein efficiency ratio (PER) are all ratings of
Protein quality
The RDA for protein is _____. The Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges (AMDRs) suggest that protein consumption accounts for between ____ of energy intake
0.8 g/kg (or 2.2 pounds); 10% and 35%
The vegan dietary pattern can provide all the essential nutrients except _____. Iron and zinc may also be low.
vitamins D and B12, calcium, and omega-3 fatty acids
This form of malnutrition is caused by a lack of sufficient energy (kcal) intake
Marasmus
___ is defined as malnutrition caused by protein deficiency even though adequate energy is consumed.
Kwashiorkor
___ perform numerous functions, including growth and maintenance, creation of essential substances, immune system response, fluid regulation, acid-base balance, and transportation of nutrients and other substances in the body.
proteins
Organic molecules required in very small amounts for cellular metabolism. Each one performs specific metabolic function
Vitamins
The only vitamin synthesized by the body
Vitamin D
Nonnutritive substances in plant-based foods that appear to have disease-fighting properties.
Phytochemicals
The main function of thiamin (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), Pantothenic Acid (B5), Pyridoxine (B6) is to serve as ____.
coenzymes
This thiamine deficiency disease is characterized by ataxia (muscle weakness and loss of coordination), pain, mental disorientation, and tachycardia (rapid beating of the heart).
beriberi
The most common disorder of the central nervous system, caused by chronic alcohol abuse
Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome.
Parenteral fluids should contain _____; otherwise, the marginal levels of nutritionally depleted individuals, combined with a sudden increase of glucose to the brain, can initiate Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome, regardless of the level of alcohol intake.
a mix of B vitamins
Others at risk for ____ deficiency include patients who are undergoing dialysis because of renal disease, who are receiving parenteral nutrition, who are HIV positive or have AIDS, or who have persistent vomiting (hyperemesis gravidarum), anorexia nervosa, gastrectomy, or certain genetic disorders
thiamin
Symptoms of this deficiency are: swollen lips, cracks in the corners of the mouth (cheilosis). The tongue becomes inflamed, swollen, and purplish red (glossitis)
Riboflavin (B2) deficiency (Ariboflavinosis)
Diets adequate in ___ tend to be adequate in niacin
protein (niacin is synthesized from tryptophan)
Dermatis, dementia, diarrhea
Pellagra (niacin deficiency)
Prolonged use of drugs such as isoniazid (for tuberculosis), penicillamine (for lead poisoning, cystinuria, Wilson’s disease, sclerosis, and rheumatoid arthritis), cycloserine (for tuberculosis), and hydralazine (for hypertension) may require ______ supplements to reduce neurologic side effects and prevent deficiency during treatment
vitamin b6 (pyridoxine)
Oral contraptives can deplete this vitamin
vitamin b6 (pyridoxine)
____ acts as a coenzyme in reactions involving the transfer of one-carbon units during metabolism. As such, it is required for the synthesis of amino acids, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Folate
In cases of ____, a congenital defect in which the brain does not develop, death may occur shortly after birth.
anencephaly
____ is a congenital neural tube defect caused by the incomplete closure of the fetus’s spine during early pregnancy. It may involve incomplete development of the brain, spinal cord, and their protective coverings, resulting in a range of disabilities, including paralysis and incontinence
Spina bifida
___ has a role in the proper formation of fetal neural tubes. Adequate levels during the first month after conception appear to greatly reduce the incidence of neural tube defects.
Folate
This deficiency results in megaloblastic anemia. This is a form of anemia characterized by large red blood cells that cannot carry oxygen properly. Other deficiency symptoms are glossitis, diarrhea, irritability, absentmindedness, depression, and anxiety
Folate
This deficiency may result from any condition that requires cell division to speed up, including infection, cancer, burns, blood loss, GI damage, growth, and pregnancy.
Folate
cyanocobalamin
pharmaceutical form of B12
This vitamin plays a role in folate metabolism by modifying folate coenzymes to active forms to support metabolic functions, including the synthesis of DNA and RNA.
Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)
This vitamin develops and maintains the myelin sheaths that surround and protect nerve fibers
Vitamin 12 (Cobalamin)
____ is a protein that helps your intestines absorb vitamin B12. It is made by cells in the stomach lining.
Intrinsic factor
___is a medical condition in which the blood is low in normal red blood cells.
Anemia
___ assists in the transfer of carbon dioxide from one compound to another, playing an important role in carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism.
Biotin
This vitamin in supplemental form can interfere with lab results
Biotin
___ is needed for the synthesis of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter, and lecithin, the phospholipid.
Choline
Symptoms of this vitamin toxicity include sweating, fishy body odor, vomiting, liver damage, reduced growth, and low blood pressure (hypotension).
choline
This vitamin functions as an antioxidant and as a coenzyme. It is essential to grow and heal tissue in all parts of the body
Vitamin C
Marginal deficiency of this vitamin may manifest as gingivitis with soreness and ulcerations of the mouth, poor wound healing, inadequate tooth and bone growth or maintenance, and increased risk of infection as the integrity of tissues throughout the body becomes compromised.
Vitamin C
Vision, bone growth, immune function, and reproduction all depend on this vitamin
Vitamin A
Vitamin A, C, E and Selenium are all examples of this
Antioxidant
Deficiency of this vitamin causes xerophthalmia, which progresses from night blindness (the inability of the eyes to readjust from bright to dim light) to keratomalacia, resulting in complete blindness
Vitamin A
Intestinal absorption of calcium and phosphorus depends on the action of this vitamin. It is also affects bone mineralization and mineral homeostasis by helping to regulate blood calcium levels.
Vitamin D
Calcitriol
The hormonal form of Vitamin D
Because of insufficient mineralization of bone and tooth matrix, this deficiency disorder leads to malformed skeletons, characterized by bowed legs unable to bear body weight, oddly angled rib bones and chests, and abnormal tooth formation
rickets (vitamin D defiency disorder)
Osteomalacia, or “bad bones,” is characterized by soft demineralized bones that are at risk for fractures. Osteoperosis involves decreased bone density, and become brittle and break easily. Both can be caused by a deficiency of ____ or ___
vitamin D; calcium
High intakes of this vitamin can result in hypercalcemia (high calcium level in blood) and hypercalciuria (high calcium level in urine), which affect kidneys and may cause cardiovascular damage.
vitamin D
This vitamin acts as an antioxidant, protecting polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin A in cell membranes from oxidative damage by being oxidized itself. This function is particularly important in protecting the integrity of lung and red blood cell membranes, which are exposed to large amounts of oxygen
Vitamin E
Some ____ in which deficiencies of fat-soluble vitamins may occur are cystic fibrosis, biliary atresia (blocked bile duct), other disorders of the hepatobiliary system, and liver transport problems.
chronic fat absorption disorders
This vitamin is a cofactor in the synthesis of blood clotting factors, including prothrombin. Protein formation in bone, kidney, and plasma also depends on this vitamin.
Vitamin K
Long-term intensive antibiotic therapy destroys the intestinal microflora that produce this vitamin and may result in defiency
Vitamin K
Intracranial bleeding and other symptoms consistent with child abuse may actually be due to this deficiency
vitamin K deficiency
These fluids, found within cells, are composed of water plus concentrations of potassium and phosphates
Intracellular fluid
These fluids are found between cells and contain concentrations of sodium and chloride.
Interstitial fluid
This is the term for body fluid that is not contained in cells. It is found in blood, in lymph, in body cavities lined with serous (moisture-exuding) membrane, in the cavities and channels of the brain and spinal cord, and in muscular and other body tissues.
Extracellular fluid
This is the loss of water through the skin that does not occur as perceivable sweat. It takes place at an almost constant rate and reflects evaporative loss from the epithelial cells of the skin.
Insensible perspiration
The functions of this compound include: Provides shape and rigidity to cells Helps regulate body temperature Acts as a lubricant Cushions body tissues Transports nutrients and waste products Acts as a solvent Provides a source of trace minerals Participates in chemical reactions
Water
This hormone is secreted by the hypothalamus in response to high sodium levels in the body, or too-low blood pressure or blood volume.
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
This hormone signals the kidneys to retain fluid in the body
Aldosterone
Minerals that carry electrical charges or ions (particles) when dissolved in water
Electrolytes
The primary extracellular electrolytes in body fluids
Sodium (Na+/cation) and chloride (Cl−/anion)
The primary intracellular electrolyte
Potassium (K+/cation)
A transport protein that works to exchange sodium from within the cells for potassium
The sodium/potassium pump
This organ regulates electrolyte levels
The kidneys
Symptoms of this condition include: infrequent urination, decreased skin elasticity, dry mucous membranes, dry mouth, unusual drowsiness, lightheadedness or disorientation, extreme thirst, nausea, slow or rapid breathing, and sudden weight loss; orthostatic hypotension
Fluid volume deficit (FVD)
____ is a condition in which a person experiences increased fluid retention and edema. It is associated with a compromised regulatory mechanism, excess fluid intake, or excess sodium intake.
Fluid volume excess
Muscle cramps, decreased blood pressure, and weakness are symptoms of this relatively rare condition
Water intoxication
To maintain body levels of major minerals, the minerals must be consumed daily from dietary sources in amounts of ___ or higher.
100 mg
In contrast to major minerals, trace minerals are required daily in amounts less than or equal to ___
20 mg
The following are all of the \_\_\_\_: Calcium Chloride Magnesium Phosphorus Potassium Sodium Sulfur
Major minerals
Functions that depend on this mineral include (1) the central nervous system, particularly nerve impulses; (2) muscle contraction and relaxation, when needed; (3) formation of blood clots; and (4) blood pressure regulation. Continuing research supports that increased levels of this mineral (and vitamin D) intakes may be protective for colorectal cancer
Calcium
99% of this mineral in the body is found in our bones. The other 1% is released as blood flows through bone
Calcium
If calcium blood levels get too low, three actions can occur to reestablish calcium homeostasis
Bones release calcium, intestines absorb more calcium, and kidneys retain more calcium
____ is secreted by the parathyroid gland in response to low blood calcium levels. It raises blood calcium levels by stimulating all three ways of providing calcium to body fluids. Vitamin D has a hormone-like effect as ____ and increases blood calcium levels by acting on all three systems. The third hormone involved, ____, is released by the special C cells of the thyroid gland. ____ reacts in response to high blood levels of calcium by lowering both calcium and phosphate in the blood
Parathormone, calcitriol, calcitonin, (calcitonin)
If calcium blood levels get too high, calcium ___ (with symptoms of hardness or stiffness of muscles) may occur. Conversely, if levels are too low, a person may experience calcium ___, with spasms caused by muscle and nerve excitability.
rigor; tetany
The following are factor that hinder \_\_\_ absorption: Aging Binders such as phytic acid and oxalic acid Dietary fat Dietary fiber Drug use Excessive phosphorus intake Laxative use Sedentary lifestyle
Calcium
Some medications, including anticonvulsants, tetracycline, cortisone, thyroxine, and aluminum-containing antacids, are associated with reduced ____ absorption.
calcium
One of the most recognizable characteristics of ____ is the dowager’s hump; as vertebrae in the spine collapse from weakness, the spine is no longer able to support the weight of the head. The back bows and the head angles down. Most significantly, the internal organs affected by the curvature are unable to function efficiently, and other health difficulties develop.
osteoporosis
Men and women who undergo organ transplantation are more at risk for osteoporosis, particularly during the ____. The loss of bone density is probably caused by the medications used to prevent organ rejection, such as glucocorticoids, that disturb bone and mineral homeostasis.
first year after surgery
Most of the ____ in the body (85%) is in our bones and teeth as a component of hydroxyapatite, a natural mineral structure. The other 15% of has functions (1) in energy transfer; (2) as part of the genetic material of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA); (3) as a buffer in the form of phosphoric acid, which balances body acid-base levels; and (4) as a component of phospholipids used for transportation and structural functions
phosphorus
As with calcium and phosphorus, most of the this mineral in the body is found in our bones, providing structural and storage functions. It assists hundreds of enzymes throughout the body. It also regulates nerve and muscle function, including the actions of the heart, and has a role in the blood clotting process and in the immune system.
magnesium
This deficiency tends to have secondary causes such as vomiting/diarrhea due to pathologic conditions, kidney diesease, or GI tract disorder. Symptoms of deficiency include twitching of muscles, muscle weakness, and convulsions. In children, it may be associated with growth failure.
Magnesium
Self-supplementation with calcium tablets containing magnesium while also taking magnesium supplements adds up to an excess that is not seriously toxic but is excessive enough to cause _____
long-term diarrhea and deficient fluid volume (dehydration)
This mineral is a component of protein structures. It is present in every cell of the body and is part of several amino acids, thiamine, and biotin. It is also involved in maintaining the acid-base balance of the body
Sulfur
Laboratory studies of ____ determine electrolyte values.
blood serum
Sodium, potassium, and chloride are major ____of the body
Electrolytes
Maintaining a balance of these minerals is important because of their effect on body processes such as the amount of water in the body, blood pH, and muscle action.
Electrolytes
Blood pressure and volume are maintained by the characteristics of ____ as the major cation in extracellular fluid. Transmission of nerve impulses relies on this electrolyte as well.
sodium
Depletion can be caused by dehydration. Symptoms of this deficiency include headache, muscle cramps, weakness, reduced ability to concentrate, and loss of memory and appetite.
Sodium
Hyponatremia, or low blood ___, may occur. The symptoms are the same as for intake deficiency. May be acute or chronic. Acute hyponatremia is of concern for endurance athletes. Can be determined by blood test.
sodium
The best remedy for occasional edema caused by excessive sodium intake is simply to ____
drink more water to equalize the sodium concentration of body fluids.
While sodium as a cation maintains the fluid levels extracellularly, this electrolyte is the primary intercellular cation, maintaining fluid levels inside the cells. It is also crucial for normal functioning of nerves and muscles, including the heart.
Potassium
Most Americans do not get enough of this mineral. It can lower blood pressure, decrease the negative effects of sodium chloride on blood pressure, reduce the risk of kidney stones, and possibly reduce bone loss. Foods high in this mineral include sweet potatoes, tomatoes, bananas, oranges.
Potassium
Symptoms associated with this mineral deficiency include muscle weakness, confusion, decreased appetite, and, in severe cases, cardiac dysrhythmias.
Potassium
Patients undergoing dialysis may still be at risk for toxicity of this mineral. Symptoms of toxicity are similar to those of a deficiency. They include muscle weakness, vomiting, and at excessively high levels, cardiac arrest.
Potassium
As the key anion of extracellular fluids, ___ assists in maintaining fluid balance inside and outside cells.
chloride
This trace mineral is responsible for distributing oxygen throughout our bodies
Iron
This oxygen-transporting protein holds oxygen in the muscle cells for quick use when needed
Myoglobin
The RDA of this mineral accounts for its unusual absorption. Only about 10% to 15% of what is consumed is absorbed; this amount increases up to 20% if body levels are deficient. Higher percentages are absorbed during pregnancy and during periods of growth.
Iron
Intestinal mucosal cells contain two proteins that assist in absorption of dietary iron. One protein moves iron to a protein carrier in blood transferrin. This allows for the movement of iron through blood to bone marrow and tissues as needed. The second stores iron in the mucosal cells as a reserve if iron is needed. If not used, mucosal cells are replaced every few days so a continuous short-term supply of iron is available.
mucosal transferrin; mucosal ferritin
This form of iron, found in animal sources, is more easily absorbed than the form found in plant foods
Heme iron, nonheme iron
When both the percentage of red blood cells (called hematocrit) and the hemoglobin level fall, a health care provider should suspect this deficiency.
iron
Deficiency of this mineral, even if not yet resulting in anemia, may aggravate chronic inflammatory disease disorders such as chronic kidney disease, inflammatory bowel disease, and chronic heart failure. It is most common in children and women of childbearing age.
Iron
The tannin in tea reduces ___ absorption.
iron
Drinking a glass of ___ when taking an iron supplement will maximize iron absorption. Avoid taking iron supplements with ___ because calcium interferes with absorption. Supplementation may cause black stool and constipation.
orange juice; milk
Hemosiderosis, storing too much iron in the body, is a health concern. This condition may be caused either by ____, a genetic iron overload disorder that allows more dietary iron to be absorbed than usual, or by consumption of very high levels of iron-containing foods, perhaps through iron fortification, or chronic alcohol abuse. Bacterial microorganisms may thrive on the excessive amounts of iron circulating in the blood. These effects manifest as various symptoms such as weakness and fatigue. More specific symptoms include liver and heart damage, diabetes, arthritis, and discoloration of skin.
hemochromatosis
Accidental poisoning of a child who consumes this mineral as supplements is a medical emergency. As few as 6 to 12 pills can be lethal, depending on the dose and the age of the child.
Iron
More than 200 enzymes throughout the body depend on this trace mineral. It affects our growth process, taste and smell ability, healing process, immune system, and carbohydrate metabolism by assisting insulin function
zinc
Deficiency of this mineral are rare in the U.S. Symptoms include impaired growth, reduced appetite, and immunologic disorders. Severe deficiency during the growth years may result in dwarfism and hypogonadism (reduced function of gonads), leading to delayed sexual development.
Zinc
Toxicity of this mineral from inappropriate supplementation produces GI distress, leading to vomiting and diarrhea, fever, and exhaustion. The symptoms appear similar to those of the flu. Consequently, the UL of 40 mg should be observed.
Zinc
This trace mineral is part of the hormone thyroxin produced by the thyroid gland. Thyroxin is involved with regulating growth and development, basal metabolic rate, and body temperature.
Iodine
Goiter, enlargement of the thyroid gland, occurs during extended deficiency of this trace mineral. The thyroid gland works to compensate for the low iodine levels and expands; the goiter often remains even after iodine intake is again sufficient. Due to fortification of salt with iodine, this condition is now extremely rare in the U.S.
iodine
This trace mineral increases resistance to tooth decay and is part of tooth formation. Skeletal health also depends on it for bone mineralization.
fluoride
This trace mineral is part of an enzyme that acts as an antioxidant. It works with Vitamin E to prevent cell and lipid membrane damage from oxidizing substances. It is also associated with thyroid function. Low dietary levels of this trace mineral may be associated with an increased risk of cancer. The RDA is easily met.
Selenium
The most common symptoms of toxicity of this mineral are hair and nail brittleness and loss. Other effects are severe liver damage, vomiting, and diarrhea. Additional symptoms include metallic aftertaste, respiratory distress with lung edema and bronchopneumonia, and garlic-scented breath and sweat. Chronic toxicity is not likely to occur in the U.S. population because food is consumed from many regional areas, a pattern that dilutes consumption of food grown in naturally occurring areas.
Selenium
Although the body requires minute amounts of it, this trace mineral performs many functions: (1) a coenzyme involving antioxidant reactions and energy metabolism, (2) a component of wound healing, (3) a constituent of nerve fiber protection, and (4) a required element for iron use. Deficiency does not occur in the U.S.
Copper
Wilson’s disease, an inherited disorder, results in the excessive accumulation of this mineral in the liver, brain, and cornea of the eye.
copper
This trace mineral has a role in carbohydrate metabolism as a constituent of the glucose tolerance factor that facilitates the reaction of insulin. Deficiencies are rare, but can be responsible in part for some cases of impaired glucose tolerance, hyperglycemia, hypoglycemia, and unresponsiveness to insulin. Toxicity comes from environmental contaminants, rather than dietary or supplement intake.
Chromium
