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Pathophysiology 2 > Cancer > Flashcards

Cancer Flashcards

1
Q

What are the most common cancers?

A

Bowel,prostate,breast and lung

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2
Q

Define cancer?

A

Highly invasive and destructive neoplasms

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3
Q

What is oncology?

A

The study of neoplasms

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4
Q

What is a neoplasm?

A

Cells formed from irreversible deviant cell division

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5
Q

What is a tumour?

A

Collection of neoplasms that have lost genetic control of proliferation and differentiation

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6
Q

What is a benign tumour?

A

A localised tumour that has lost control of proliferation but the cells closely resemble the origin (still function how they should normally).

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7
Q

What is a malignant tumour?

A

A destructive and invasive tumour, which doesn’t resemble the cells of origin

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8
Q

Melon ant tumours usually end with what suffix’s?

A

Carcinoma or sarcoma

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9
Q

Features of a benign tumour?

A 
Differentiated cells
Similar to normal cell
Fairly normal mitosis
Relatively slow growth
Expanding mass
Normally encapsulated 
Localised
Systemic effects are rare
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10
Q

Features of a malignant tumour?

A 
Cells vary in size,shape and nucleus
Undifferentiated cells
Increased mitosis 
Rapid growth
Non adhesive cells, infiltrate tissue
No capsule
Invades nearby tissue, and metastasis via blood or lymph
Systemic effects
Life threatening
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11
Q

Why does cancer occur?

A

Due to carcinogenic agents damaging cell genes(DNA) and then the repair of these genes malfunctioning .
Therefore the cells DNA is altered meaning it doesn’t reproduce normally (increased growth and reproduction/ proliferation), doesn’t carry out its normal function (differentiation) and doesn’t die (apoptosis) when it’s supposed to.

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12
Q

Characteristics of cancer cells?

A
  1. Antigens on the surface causing chronic inflammatory response
  2. large nucleus meaning they can rapidly divide
  3. Secrete substances that affect other body systems
  4. Slippery so can travel easily
  5. Increased energy expenditure so deprives surrounding cells of nutrients
  6. Rapid angiogenesis (forming of blood vessels) so can travel easily
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13
Q

What are mutator genes? Give names and functions of two?

A

Genes that repair mutated DNA,
Pronto oncogenes regulate cell function.
Tumor suppressor genes prohibit over proliferation of cells and regulate apoptosis

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14
Q

What are the 3 stages of developing cancer?

A

Initiation-
carcinogenic agent that damages the Cells DNA

Promotion-
expansion of the mutated gene, where promotors cause further changed to the DNA resulting in reduced function of cells and increased growth.

Progression-
Malignant tumour forms

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15
Q 
Give examples of carcinogens including:
Ionising 
Hormones
Chemicals
Viruses and bacteria?
A

X-rays, uv rays

Oestrogen

Tobacco, asbestos, insecticides

HPV, hepatitis B and C

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16
Q

What are the 4 ways of cancer spreading?

A

Local spread-
Proliferation of neoplasms within the tissue of origin

Direct extension-
Tumour moves into the adjacent tissue and organs

Seeding-
Malignant tumour moves along the membranes of peritoneal and pleural cavities, accessing organs within

Metastases-
Neoplasms spread to distant sites via the lymphatic and blood vessels

17
Q

How is cancer classified?

A

Size, extent, spread and nodes

TNM staging system:
T =primary tumor
N= lymph nodes
M= metastasis

18
Q

What is are the characteristics of a grade I or II tumour?

A

Resembles the size,shape,structure and mitigation activity of the tissue origin.
And still holds some of its function ( well differentiated)

19
Q

What’s the characteristics of a grade ||| or |V tumour?

A

Highly undifferentiated and shows little or no resemblance to the tissue of origin

20
Q

What are the warning signs of cancer?

A 
Unusual bleeding or discharge
Change in bowl or bladder habits 
Change in wart or mole
Sore that doesn’t heal
Unexplained weight loss
Anaemia
Persistent fatigue
Persistent Cough without reason
Lumps
21
Q

What the manifestations of cancer

A

Systemic inflammatory and immune response eg. Fever,anorexia,weight loss

Increased metabolism

Paraneoplastic symptoms (indirect changes in the body function) eg.sweating

Pain in tumour region
And changes in blood

22
Q

What are the 3 possible goals of cancer treatment?

A
  1. Completely eradicate neoplasm
  2. Control continued growth and spread
  3. Reduce symptoms but cancer isn’t cured
23
Q

Name 6 initiation agents?

A 
Oestrogen 
Red and processed meat
Smoking
Alcohol
Obesity
UV Rays
24
Q

What are the Oestrogen risk factors and potential initiation processes?

A
  1. Early menarche (early periods),
  2. Late menopause,
  3. no/limited breast feeding,
  4. Contraceptive pill,
  5. HRT (hormone replacement therapy),
  6. Obesity,

Oestrogen increases the activation-induced deaminase (AID) in b-cells. AID causes hyper mutation in B-cells as part of antibody production, as well as cancer causing mutations is B-cells.

25
Q

What are the risk factors of red and processed meats and the initiating factors?

A

1/4 male and 1/6 female bowel cancer linked to eating it.

Initiating factors=
Haem stimulates gut bacteria to produce N-nitroso compounds. Nitrates in the processed meats are also converted into N-nitroso compounds. These compounds irritate and damage the bowel epithelial cells causing increased devision and risk of mutations. Cook red meats at high temperatures produces cancer causing amines.

26
Q

What are the risk factors of smoking cigarettes and what are the initiating factors?

A

Cigarettes contain many poisonous chemicals that damage the dna in lung cells, risk factors increase with the length of time smoked rather than amount.

Chromium and aromatic hydrocarbons damage cellular DNA, arsenic and nickel prevent DNA repair, and so there is a reduced immune system response to damaged cells.

27
Q

What are the risk factors of alcohol and what are the initiating factors?

A

Alcohols is associated with breast, bowl and lung cancer and is a high carcinogenic factor. Having one drink (1.5 units) per day increases risk by 5%.

Initiating factors=
Breast cancer- increases oestrogen so increases risk of breast cancer.
Lung cancer- increases the absorption of the carcinogenic substances from smoking.
Bowel cancer- alcohol is converted into acetaldehyde which damages DNA and stops the repair process. Aswell as causing reactive oxygen species in cells which damages DNA.

28
Q

What are the risk factors of obesity and what are the initiating factors?

A

Obesity is linked to 13 types of cancer and 1/5 children are overweight before primary school. Obese children often become obese adults and being obese in childhood makes irreversible changes in the child’s body increasing the risk.

Initiating factors= obesity causes chronic inflammation and attracts immune cells. Also it causes an increase in oestrogen and insulin levels within the body which can lead to cancer,

29
Q

What are the risk factors of UV rays and what are the initiating factors?

A

Being on holiday, fair skinned, having freckles and moles and having light hair all are risk factors.

Initiating factors= UVA rays age the skin where as UVB rays cause sunburn which damages the skin cells DNA.

30
Q

What is a promoting factor give an example?

A

A promoting factor is something which trigger the initiating factor to become cancer. Examples are continuous prescience of oestrogen, smoking and chronic inflammation.

31
Q

What are the symptoms of breast cancer?

A

Painfull breasts, change in shape and size, inverted nipples, lumps or hardening around the armpit,change in texture of nipples, redness, rash and discharge.

32
Q

What are the symptoms of prostate cancer?

A 
Passing urine more frequently,
Getting up in the night,
Unable to pass urine,
Urgency,
Leaking,
Raised PSA,
Blood in urine.
33
Q

What are the symptoms of lung cancer?

A 
Persistent cough for more than 3 weeks,
Changes in a long term cough, 
Blood in sputum, 
Loss of appetite,
Fatigue,
Pain in chest,
SOB,
Weight loss,
34
Q

What are the symptoms of bowl cancer?

A 
Bleeding from rectum,
Blood in stools,
Changes in bowel habits,
Losing weight,
SOB,
Painful abdomen and bowel,
Fatigue,
Bowel obstruction.
35
Q

What’s are the symptoms of melanoma?

A 
Dark moles, 
Irregular shaped moles
Raised moles,
Irregular shapes and colour,
Asymmetry,
36
Q

What different surgeries are there to remove tumours?

A 
Colectomy,
Lobectomy,
Pneumonectomy,
Prostatectomy,
Mastectomy,
37
Q

What are the 4 types of cancer treatment?

A

Chemotherapy,
Radiotherapy,
Hormone targeted therapy,
Surgery

38
Q

What are the side effects of chemotherapy?

A 
Tiredness,
Nausea and vomiting,
Hair loss,
Anaemia,
Bruising,
Bleeding,
Loss of appetite,
Sore mouth,
Skin and nails changes,
Concentration and memory problems,
Sleep problems,
Sex and fertility problems,
Diarrhoea and constipation,
Emotional problems,
39
Q

What are the side effects of radiotherapy?

A 
Tiredness,
Nausea and vomiting,
Hair loss,
Anaemia,
Bruising,
Bleeding,
Loss of appetite,
Sore mouth,
Skin and nails changes,
Concentration and memory problems,
Sleep problems,
Sex and fertility problems,
Diarrhoea and constipation,
Emotional problems,
Lymphedema,
Stiff joints and muscles

Pathophysiology 2 (17 decks)

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