C3: World Sociology Flashcards
1
Q
Global Inequalities
A
Refers to the uneven distribution of resources such as money and power within the world and how opportunities related to education, employment and health are also skewed
2
Q
The Champagne glass world
A
A visual way of representing global inequalities in income distribution
3
Q
Income
A
Refers to an amount of money earned in a certain period
4
Q
Wealth
A
Refers to the value of money and other assets owned (e.g. land, property, stocks and shares)
5
Q
Poverty
A
A condition characterised by severe deprivation of basic human needs - including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information
6
Q
Majority world
A
Refers to the ‘Third World’ and to the fact that more than two-thirds of the world’s population live there. As geographically most of these countries are in the south some people also use the term ‘Global South’
7
Q
Minority world
A
Refers to the rich ‘First World’ where a minority of the world’s population live. As geographically most of these countries are in the north some people also use the term ‘Global North’.
8
Q
Development
A
The progress a society is making in improving the quality of life for humans i.e. ‘good change’
9
Q
Economic development
A
Measuring development by focusing on economic growth and the wealth of nations
10
Q
GDP
A
Measures the economic output of a country by calculating the sum value of all the goods and services produced for money in the economy
11
Q
GDP per capita
A
The Gross Domestic Product of a country divided by the number of people living there
12
Q
Western societies
A
Europe, The Americas, Australia and New Zealand
13
Q
GNP
A
Calculated in the same way as GDP, except the measure includes wealth generated by a population out of activities overseas; thus considering international trade and factories based in other countries
14
Q
GINI Index
A
A measure of income inequality within a given society with higher values (maximum of 100) indicating more inequality
15
Q
Human development
A
Is about expanding the richness of human life, rather than simply the richness of the economy in which human beings live. Includes social aspects of development including education, health and the rights of women
16
Q
Composite measures of development
A
A measure of development that combines different statistical indicators (e.g. the Human Development Index).
17
Q
Human Development Index
A
A composite measure of development calculated by the United Nations by combining statistics on life expectancy, education and wealth.
18
Q
United Nations
A
An international political organisation set up after World War Two to promote peace, human rights and development
19
Q
Sustainable development
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Development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs
20
Q
Prosperity
A
Often synonymous with wealth but also includes others factors which can be independent of wealth to varying degrees, such as happiness and health
21
Q
Ecological footprint
A
It represents the amount of biologically productive land and sea area necessary to supply the resources a human population consumes, and to assimilate associated waste.
22
Q
Global hectare
A
The unit of measurement for ecological footprints 1 = 10,000 square metres
23
Q
Climate change
A
Change in global or regional climate patterns, in particular a change apparent from the mid to late 20th century onwards and attributed largely to the increased levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide produced by the use of fossil fuels
24
Q
Precautionary principle
A
The idea that when human health and the environment are significantly at risk it is better to adopt a cautious approach
25
Buddhist Economics
A perspective associated with the work of Ernst Schumacher. It is critical of the environmental and social costs of western consumerism. For Schumacher the key to well-being is not consumption but meaningful work that allows human beings to be creative
26
Consumerism
The pressure that society puts on individuals to purchase goods and service for money in ever increasing amounts
27
Happy Planet Index
A composite measure of development which takes account of life expectancy, self-reports of happiness and ecological footprints
28
Millennium Development Goals
Development targets set in 2000 by the United Nations
29
Sustainable Development Goals
These 17 aspirational goals have replaced the Millennium Development Goals from 2016
30
Modernisation Theory
Dominant development theory of the 1960s based on the work of Walt Rostow. In a nutshell: Development means becoming more like us
31
Traditional society
Rostow's first stage of development: It is based on subsistence farming, limited wealth, and traditional values hold back change
32
Pre-conditions for take-off
Rostow's second stage of development. There will be new technologies to modernise agriculture and these provide the fuel for further development
33
Take off
Rostow's third stage of development. A new class of ‘entrepreneurs’ emerges which is willing to take risks in investing in business
34
Drive to maturity
Rostow's fourth stage of development. Investment in education, health and social services lead to rising living standards
35
The age of mass consumption
Rostow’s final stage of development. The society achieves the kind of levels the USA had reached by the 1960s: high mass consumption; high standards of living for most of the population
36
Subsistence agriculture
Is a system whereby crops and livestock are produced for consumption by the family rather than for sale in the market.
37
Ascribed status
Where your position in society is fixed at birth with jobs passed down family lines
38
Collectivism
The notion that members of the family/tribal unit put the interests of the group before self-interest
39
Fatalism
An attitude whereby the holder believes that there is nothing they can do about their circumstances
40
Cottage industry
A mode of production typical of pre-industrial societies, where the home was the main focus for the manufacture of goods needed in society
41
Entrepreneurship
Is the process of starting a business or other organisation
42
Individualism
The notion that individual self-interest should come before the interests of the group
43
Industrialisation
The process whereby a society moves from a predominantly agricultural base to one where the economy is dominated by manufacturing (based on mechanised mass production)
44
Internal cultural barriers
Ideas and beliefs which can make less developed countries resistant to social change and progress (Talcott Parsons).
45
Cultural catalysts
Investments of foreign aid used to bring about cultural changes in less developed countries by creating institutions which transmit modern norms and values, for example education.
46
Internal economic barriers
These are the things that prevent poorer countries from developing their economy. For example a lack of technology and an absence of entrepreneurs.
47
Economic catalysts
Investments of foreign aid or investments by Transnational Corporations that can help poorer countries overcome their economic barriers.
48
Cycle of poverty
Where poorer countries are never able to produce their goods cheaply or efficiently enough to generate wealth. Also known as a ‘poverty trap’ (Jeffrey Sachs)
49
Ethnocentrism
Looking at an issue from the view-point of a particular cultural background and therefore obtaining a biased opinion of it
50
Neoliberalism
A theory which takes the view that the free market is the best way of organising and developing societies; against government intervention in society. This approach is also known as the ‘new right’. In a nutshell: (free) trade not aid
51
Free trade
Trade across national boundaries without interference from the respective governments. It is the opposite of economic protectionism
52
Market
Any place where buyers and sellers meet to trade products
53
Free market
An economic system in which government interference is minimised and all activity is governed only by laws of supply and demand (market forces)
54
The laws of supply and demand
A theory explaining the interaction between the availability of a product and the desire for that product amongst consumers. Generally, if there is a low availability and a high desire, the price will be high. In contrast, the greater the availability and the lower the desire, the lower the price will be
55
Market price
The amount customers are charged for depending on demand,(the amount of a product customers are prepared to buy), and supply, (the availability of a product)
56
The invisible hand
A metaphor used by Adam Smith to describe unintended social benefits resulting from individuals pursuing their own self interests
57
'Trickle down economics'
The Neoliberal idea that economic benefits provided to businesses and upper income level earners will help society as a whole. In theory their extra wealth will help to grow the economy and create jobs
58
Economic protectionism
A term used to describe economic policies such as tariffs, quotas and subsidies which aim to shelter domestic companies from foreign competition. It is the opposite of free trade
59
Tariffs
Taxes on imports to protect a country’s own industries.
60
Quotas
Where the government puts strict limits on the number of foreign goods it allows to be imported into the country
61
Subsidies
Payments given by governments to companies in their own country to make them more competitive in the global market
62
Trade Liberalisation
The process of removing barriers to free trade such as tariffs, quotas and subsidies
63
‘Red Tape’
This refers to state regulations on businesses
64
Structural Adjustment Plans (SAPs)
Refers to the conditions attached to loans provided by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank (WB) to countries that experienced economic crises. The conditions usually focus on things like trade liberalisation, privatisation and deregulation of businesses
65
The ‘Washington consensus’
This is a phrase used to describe the influence of Neo-Liberalism on the World Bank and IMF (both of these institutions have their headquarters in Washington DC)
66
Infant industry argument
The argument originally made by Alexander Hamilton that the governments of economically less developed nations need to protect and nurture their young industries against superior foreign competitors until they grow up
67
Dependency Theory
This perspective maintains that global poverty and affluence are intimately connected. Both have been created by the systematic and total exploitation of the periphery nations by the core. In a nutshell: Development and underdevelopment are two sides of the same coin
68
Core/Periphery Model
A view of the global economy which characterises divisions between a strong, stable core and a weak, vulnerable surround to that core
69
Metropolis nations
Term used by Dependency theorists to describe the most economically developed countries. Also known as ‘core nations’
70
Satellite nations
Term used by dependency theorists to describe countries in the developing world (also known as ‘periphery nations’). The terms indicate their dependence on the ‘core nations’
71
Primary economic activity
This is the sector of an economy making direct use of natural resources. This includes agriculture, forestry, fishing and mining. This sector is usually most important in less developed countries, and typically less important in industrial countries
72
Secondary sector
This is the sector of an economy producing manufactured goods
73
Tertiary sector
This is the service sector of an economy
74
‘Backwash effect’
Where resources and wealth are sucked out of the periphery and into the core
75
Underdevelopment
Term used by dependency theorists (e.g. Frank) to describe the process whereby the core capitalist countries have distorted and manipulated the progress of less-developed countries to their own advantage
76
Mercantile capitalism
The first phase of exploitation according to Frank. During this time a number of informal trade networks were established, through which European capitalists generated massive profits
77
Colonialism
A world system in which European countries directly controlled much of Asia, Africa and Latin America
78
'Divide and rule'
The main tactic used by the colonial powers, setting different elements within the colonised countries against each other. The drawing up of ‘national’ boundaries by the colonial powers, without heed to history, culture or language aided this policy
79
Neo-colonialism
Modern forms of exploitation of poorer societies by rich societies, which according to Dependency Theorists are usually dressed up as beneficial e.g. aid, trade and TNC investment
80
The scramble for Africa
A term used to describe the colonisation of Africa in the 19th C. when European rulers suddenly decided to take over Africa. Africa’s natural resources were used to fuel industrialisation in Europe
81
Cash crops
Crops grown to sell rather than to use
82
The Slave Triangle
A three-legged journey (Europe, Africa, the Americas) undertaken by slave traders
83
Eugenics
The pseudo-science claiming to improve the genetic features of human populations through selective breeding and sterilization, based on the idea that it is possible to distinguish between superior and inferior elements of society
84
The Rwandan Genocide
A mass slaughter of Tutsi and moderate Hutu in Rwanda by members of the Hutu majority. During the approximate 100-day period from April 7, 1994, to mid-July, an estimated 500,000–1,000,000 Rwandans were killed
85
The resource curse
The paradox that countries and regions with an abundance of natural resources tend to have less economic growth and worse development outcomes than countries with fewer natural resources e.g. The Democratic Republic of Congo
86
Third World debt crisis
Refers to the fact that most developing countries have very large debts, and the amount of money they owe is quickly increasing. Trying to pay off the debt (debt service) has become a serious problem for these countries, and it causes great hardship for their people
87
World Systems Theory
This theory is associated with the work of Immanuel Wallerstein from the early 1970s onwards and developed from Dependency theory, sharing with it a basis in Marxism
88
Modern world system
A term used in World Systems Theory to describe the global economy. This comprises a hierarchy of countries from the core (developed), through the semi-periphery (countries such as Brazil and South Africa, with some advanced urban sectors), to the periphery (the least developed)
89
The semi-periphery
Countries which occupy a space somewhere between the core and the periphery. Such countries may aspire to core membership or they may be former members of the core whose economic development has stalled or declined
90
Capitalism
An economy where most of the production of goods and services is initiated & undertaken by private companies who aim to generate profit from this activity. Most work is performed by individuals who work for someone else in return for money
91
Counter-Industrial Theories
An umbrella term that encompasses perspectives which agree that the Western model of industrial development is ultimately flawed. (e.g. Environmentalism, Neo-populism – including Buddhist Economics )
92
Environmentalism (ecological theory)
A perspective which concerns itself with the protection of the natural environment. It argues that the western industrial model of development is ecologically unsustainable
93
Ecological unsustainability
The view that the development activities of human beings are leading to a crisis in the environment in many areas. The crisis can be seen in species loss, degradation of forestland, depletion of water resources and global warming.
94
Neo-populism
A Counter-Industrial Theory which focuses on the social costs of rapid industrialisation. E.g. Loss of employment & the destruction of traditional communities
95
De-skilling
A concept used to denote the stripping away from workers of traditional skills. The mechanisation and factory system associated with industrialisation can lead to the loss of skilled and fulfilling types of work
96
First-nation people
The indigenous people in Canada and the USA who used to be called "Indians”
97
People Centred Development
Development strategies associated with the Counter-Industrial Theories that focus on individuals and communities, attempting to develop and improve, not replace, local industries and lifestyles. In a nutshell: Improving not replacing
98
Intermediate technologies
Technological processes based not on the capital-intensive technology of the developed nations, but on processes which, though efficient, still make use of human labour and are environmentally sustainable
99
Micro-credit
Initiatives which make small loans available to people who would otherwise be unable to access credit to invest in businesses. (also known as ‘Micro-finance)
100
Fallacy of composition
Supporting one street-seller to buy larger quantities of stock at lower prices may make sense for that individual, but if everyone does it, the market becomes saturated and retail prices (and incomes) are driven down
101
Aid (Overseas Development Assistance)
Refers to various forms of assistance given to developing countries. It can involve the transfer of goods, expertise or money and may take the form of gifts (grants) or loans
102
Bilateral aid
Aid given directly by one nation to another
103
Multi-lateral aid
Aid paid by various countries into a central pot and then redistributed. This is how the World Bank, IMF and UN distribute aid.
104
NGO
Stands for Non-Governmental Organisation. These are non-profit organisations, e.g. charities with social, political and environmental agendas (e.g. Oxfam)
105
Relief aid
Short-term aid following a natural or man-made disaster. Nobody is against this type of emergency aid
106
Development aid
Long-term aid which attempts to bring about economic and social development. This is much more contentious than relief aid and in recent years has led to a major debate between Jeffrey Sachs (in favour of this type of aid) and Easterly (against)
107
‘Make Poverty History’
A large anti-poverty campaign, involving many NGOs, which called for urgent action to deliver more and better aid, debt cancellation and trade justice in 2005
108
The global financial crisis 2007/8
An economic crisis which was triggered by banks giving mortgages & other loans to poor people who couldn’t afford to pay these loans back. The aftermath of this crisis has put pressure on Governments to reduce their Aid Budget (however the UK govt has protected their Aid budget)
109
Debt
The total amount of money owed by a country to banks or other lenders is their debt
110
Debt relief
A measure to try and combat third world poverty through cancelling out-standing monies owed. The aim is to release money from serving debt to go into development projects
111
Corruption
The abuse of entrusted power for private gain. It can be classified as grand, petty and political, depending on the amounts of money lost and the sector where it occurs
112
Cold War
The situation which prevailed after WW2, when the Soviet Union and the United States were in confrontation with each other. Aid was often used for political purposes during this period (e.g., to buy allegiances)
113
Communism
A political and social arrangement in societies characterised by State control of the means of production and a monopoly of political power by the Communist party
114
United Nations Security Council
Under the UN Charter, this body has responsibility for the maintenance of international peace/security. It has 15 Members, & each Member has one vote. There are five permanent members with veto power
115
Tied aid
Foreign aid that must be spent in the country providing the aid (the donor country)
116
Randomised control trials
Large-scale experiments designed to test if specific types of aid interventions work. This approach is advocated by Banerjee & Duflo in their book ‘Poor Economics’
117
International trade
Is the exchange of goods and services between countries
118
Goods
Products that are tangible (i.e. objects people want that they can touch or hold), such as books, pens, salt, shoes, hats and folders
119
Services
Products that involve an action that a person does for someone else. They are intangibles provided by other people, such as doctors, lawn care workers, dentists, barbers and waiters
120
Export
The sale of a product from one country (either a good or a service) to a purchaser in another country
121
Import
Goods or services which are produced in a foreign country and purchased domestically
122
The Asian ‘Tiger Economies’
Term used to describe fast growing economies in south-east Asia
123
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)
An investment by a company based in one country, in a business, located in another country. E.g. A factory set up in a developing country by a Transnational Corporation
124
'Land rush’ (the ‘new scramble for Africa')
Where nations like China and Saudi Arabia are leasing Africa land in order to establish large agribusinesses in order to maintain their own food security or to grow bio-fuels
125
The theory of Comparative Advantage
A theory developed by Ricardo to demonstrate the benefits of free trade between nations. It states that countries should specialise economically in what they do best,(i.e. those things that have the lowest opportunity costs), & trade around the world for other goods
126
Opportunity cost
Something that must be given up to achieve something else. E.g., the opportunity cost of a child going to school in a developing country might be the money they could earn for their family through work if they weren’t going to school
127
Free trade agreement
An agreement between two or more countries which eliminates tariffs on trade between the countries and takes other measures to guarantee a generally liberalised, pro-business economic environment
128
Forced liberalisation
Where poorer countries are forced to remove trade barriers as a condition for getting loans from the World Bank and IMF (e.g. SAPs)
129
Monocultures
Where poorer countries, under colonialism were used to grow and export only one or two products that were best suited to their climate. This has had lasting consequences – at least two thirds of African countries derive over 50% of their export earnings from only one or two commodities
130
Sunset industry argument
The argument that a mature industry should be provided protection, either to help it restore its competitiveness or to cushion its exit from the economy
131
Dumping
This occurs when manufacturers export a product to another country at a price either below the price charged in its home market or below its cost of production
132
Fair Trade
A movement to try to alter the terms of trade so that producers in developing countries receive a higher proportion of the profit. These schemes also have to be environmentally sustainable
133
Co-operatives
A farm, business, or other organization which is owned and run jointly by its members, who share the profits or benefits. Many ‘Fair Trade’ initiatives are run in this way
134
Demography
The statistical study of trends and patterns in population size and structure.
135
Population growth
The increase in the number of people that reside within a state or country
136
Population density
A measurement of the number of people in an area. It is an average number and is calculated by dividing the number of people by area
137
Malthusian perspectives
They say that population growth is intrinsically harmful as it may produce too many mouths to feed, with dire consequences. A useful quote to remember is: “The Power of population is indefinitely greater than the power in the earth to produce subsistence for man” (Thomas Malthus)
138
Arithmetical increase
When a series of numbers increases by some constant difference - e.g. 1, 2,, 3, 4, (a constant increase of 1 ) or 1, 3, 5, 7 (a constant increase of 2)
139
Geometrical increase
When a series of numbers increases by the constant multiplication of some number - e.g. 2, 4, 8, 16 etc. (an increase of a multiple of 2 each time)
140
Exponential growth
This is growth whose rate becomes ever more rapid in proportion to the growing total number or size. For example a population growing at an average rate of 2% per year will double in size in just 35 years
141
Malthusian checks
Disasters which bring down population e.g. famine, disease and war
142
Neo-Malthusian perspectives
New waves of Malthusian perspectives which have taken up the legacy of Malthus and applied his ideas to the contemporary world. They highlight that problems stem not just from demand for food, but also from demand for other resources such as water, oil, minerals and even physical space
143
Counter-Malthusian perspectives
Models which have challenged the Malthusian approaches, noting that they are based on several flawed assumptions (e.g. Boserup Model, the Demographic Transition Model, the Overconsumption model)
144
Boserup model
Argues that innovations in agricultural technologies respond to population pressures by lifting the carrying capacity of the planet (the number of people that the earth can feed). In a nutshell: Necessity is the mother of invention
145
The ‘Green Revolution’
Initiatives in India and Mexico, led by Norman Borlaug between the 1940s & the late 1970s. This involved the development of high-yielding varieties of cereal grains, expansion of irrigation infrastructure, modernization of management techniques, distribution of hybridized seeds, synthetic fertilizers, & pesticides to farmers
146
Demographic Transition Model
This model turns the Malthusian perspective on its head. It argues that population size does not determine development, but that levels of development lead to changes in population structures (i.e. as countries get wealthier people choose to have fewer children)
147
Over-Consumption Model
This perspective argues that population isn’t the problem at all. Instead it argues that there are enough resources to go round, but that the rich world consumes more than its fair share
148
Anti-Natalist policies
Social polices introduced by a government to lower birth rates. The most controversial is China’s ‘One Child Policy’
149
Urbanisation
The process of migration from rural areas to towns and cities. In 2010 it was estimated that for the first time in human history that more than half of the world’s population lived in urban area
150
Urban slums (Shanty Towns)
A heavily populated urban informal settlement characterized by substandard housing & squalor. Most lack reliable sanitation services, supply of clean water, reliable electricity, timely law enforcement & other basic services
151
‘Flying toilets’
Defecation into a plastic bag (also known as ‘wrap and throw’). An estimated 57% of urban Africans lack access to basic sanitation and may have to rely on this method
152
Push factors
Aspects of rural life that are negative and encourage or force people to move away from the countryside (e.g. hunger, climate change, lack of jobs and access to basic services)
153
Pull factors
Things in cities that encourage people to move there. (E.g. availability of greater range of employment, universities and secondary school for children’s education, better hospital and clinic facilities)
154
Urban renewal
The change, taking place in urban areas by replacing or improving existing buildings and amenities like streets, parks etc.
155
Adult literacy rates
Percentage of persons aged 15 and over who can read and write. This is currently about 80% for the world as a whole
156
Primary enrolment rates
The percentage of children who start primary education
157
Primary completion rates
The percentage of children who complete a full cycle of primary education. This is often significantly lower than the number of children who start
158
Universal Primary Education (UPE)
A policy of introducing ‘free’ compulsory primary education in many developing countries (Uganda was the first country in Sub-Saharan Africa to adopt this policy)
159
Role allocation
The Modernisation theory idea that education systems can help the economy by allocating people to jobs based on their grades (which will hopefully reflect their effort and talent)
160
Meritocracy
A society where you status is achieved. In theory modern education systems can help with this through their ‘role allocation function’
161
Socialisation
The process by which individuals learn and internalise their culture's norms and values
162
Cultural assimilation
Is the process by which a person or a group's language and/or culture come to resemble those of another group. Minority ethnic groups may fear that this is the aim of compulsory schooling
163
Correlation does not imply causation
A phrase used in statistics to emphasise that a correlation between two variables does not necessarily imply that one causes the other
164
Critical Pedagogy
An approach to education which argues there needs to be a shift away from a ‘banking model’. Instead education systems should be collaborative and based on an exchange of expertise between teacher and pupil. (Paulo Freire)
165
Banking model of education
Paulo Freire’s term for education which attempt to fill students with official knowledge and therefore discouraging free thought amongst the poor
166
The hidden curriculum
The set of beliefs and assumptions that are taught unintentionally by schools
167
Social control
The processes by which society ensures that people conform to its culture, and the mechanisms by which it deals with deviance
168
Indigenous knowledge
When oppressed people learn about their own culture and history rather than Western knowledge
169
Liberation theology
An attempt to read the Bible and key Christian doctrines with the eyes of the poor
170
Transnational organisations
Agencies which transcend the borders of nation states. This includes both Intergovernmental organisations and various types of NGOs
171
Intergovernmental organisations
Transnational organisations that are governmental in nature, representing and coordinating the interests of nation states across various aspects of international relations. E.g. the Bretton Woods Institutions & UN (also known as Supranational Organisations)
172
The Bretton Woods Institutions
The term used to describe the IMF, World Bank & WTO
173
The IMF
The International Monetary Fund – oversees the management of the global economy and tries to ensure that turbulence in one country does not disturb others. It lends money to governments that cannot borrow from other sources but strict conditions are attached to these loans
174
The World Bank
Provides loans and advice on economic development and poverty reduction
175
The WTO
World Trade Organisation – it negotiates trade agreements between countries in order to remove barriers and engineer free trade
176
Transnational corporations (TNCs)
A large business with operations and outlets in a range of countries. Also called Multi-National Companies (MNCs)
177
Export Processing Zones (EPZs)
Regions in developing countries where regulations and taxation are reduced to a minimum, in the hope of attracting TNC investment. Also known as ‘Free Trade Zones’
178
‘Race to the bottom’
A phrase used by critics of EPZs such as Naomi Klein who argue that developing countries compete to attract TNCs by removing regulations that protect workers and the environment
179
‘Fast Fashion’
Where high-street chains churn out fresh designs every few weeks, and consumers in rich countries buy more cheap clothes than ever before. This industry relies on the exploitation of workers in developing countries
180
Planned obsolescence
A policy of producing consumer goods that rapidly become obsolete and so require replacing, achieved by frequent changes in design, termination of the supply of spare parts, and the use of non-durable materials
181
Green washing / Social washing
Where TNCs will use misleading advertising to deceive consumers into thinking that they are ethical and environmentally responsible
182
Tax haven
A state, country or territory where, on a national level, certain taxes are levied at a low rate or not at all. It also refers to countries which have a system of financial secrecy in place
183
Gender Inequality Index
A measurement of gender inequality introduced by the UN. There are three critical dimensions: reproductive health, empowerment, and labour market participation
184
Gendercide
Refers to the ‘missing women’ phenomenon. There are perhaps 200 million ‘missing women’ in the global population, some not born, some dying of cumulative neglect
185
The Integration Thesis
The argument that traditional society is inherently patriarchal – and that women will gradually become more included in society as it develops along western lines
186
Female genital mutilation
Comprises all procedures involving the partial or total removal of the external female genital organs for non-medical reasons. It is a grave violation of the rights of girls and women
187
The Exploitation Thesis
The Marxist Feminist argument that gender inequalities have been actively created, as capitalism needs a patriarchal system to exist
188
Patriarchy
Originally meant rule by a father, but in present-day sociology the term is used more broadly to mean rule of women by men
189
Feminism
A body of theory and a social movement dedicated to ending the oppression of women and their subordination to men
190
Sexism
Treating people differently depending on their biological sex
191
Malestream sociology
The feminist idea that within sociology the mainstream way of looking at social issues has focused on men to the exclusion of women
192
The Marginalisation Thesis
The view that the creation of gender inequalities was caused by the systematic failure to include women in the public sphere of paid employment, and relegating them to the domestic arena of the family
193
Radical feminism
A revolutionary form of feminism which blames the exploitation of women on men and patriarchy. It highlights how men dominate women by violence and the threat of violence, such as rape, domestic abuse & pornography
194
‘The personal is political’
A feminist slogan which refers to the need for feminists to challenge traditional family values
195
Eco-Feminism
Argues that there is a special relationship between women and the environment, based either on innate nature or on social relationships which put women in a position of working with and understanding natural resources
196
Health inequalities
Preventable and unjust differences in health status experienced by certain population groups
197
Mortality rate
The death rate per 1,000 of the population in a given country
198
Morbidity rate
The extent or degree of prevalence of disease in a district or country
199
Communicable disease
A disease that can be caught, such as malaria, typhoid and diphtheria
200
Diseases of consumption
Illnesses associated with particular behaviours and lifestyle choices, such as cancers and heart disease
201
Infant mortality rate
The number of deaths of infants under one year old per 1,000 live births
202
Child mortality rate
The number of children who die by the age of five, per thousand live births per year. In 2013, the world average was 46 (4.6%), down from 90 (9.0%) in 1990
203
Maternal mortality rate
The number of mothers who die per 100,000 live births
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Life expectancy
The average number of years a person born in a given country would live if mortality rates at each age were to remain constant in the future
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Epidemiologic Transition Model
This is the view that changes in health are linked to western development and the shift from traditional medical practices to modern technologies and interventions
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Big Pharma
The Pharmaceutical TNCs. It is argued that they have not invested in medicines for people in developing countries and have adopted a pricing strategy that has made the treatments which are available too expensive
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Globalisation
Refers to the growing interconnectedness and integration of individuals, nations and regions of the world. This leads to an increased flow of trade, people, investment, technology, culture and ideas among countries
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Economic globalisation
The increasing economic integration and interdependence of national, regional and local economies across the world through an intensification of cross-border movement of goods, services, technologies and capital
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Cultural globalisation
Refers to the transmission of ideas, meanings and values around the world in such a way as to extend social relations. This process is marked by the common consumption of cultures that have been diffused by the Internet, popular culture media, and international travel
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Political globalisation
Refers to an increasing trend toward multilateralism in which Intergovernmental Organisations play a leading role
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Multilateralism
Multiple countries working together on a given issue
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Containerization
Is a system of freight transport using standardised shipping containers made of weathering steel.. A process for loading and transporting things more efficiently in bulk and is one of the key innovations of the 20th C that increased international trade
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Diaspora
A large group of people with a similar heritage or homeland who have since moved out to places all over the world
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Time-Space-Compression
The ability to travel to places around the world with speed and ease
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Cultural imperialism
When the cultural output of one region dominates the cultural output of other regions, especially the aggressive promotion of Western culture, specifically American culture, as superior to non-Western culture
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Time-Space-Distanciation
A term used by Giddens to describe how globalisation has dis-embedded social relations from the traditional constraints of space (where you live) and time. E.g. the way in which technology has allowed instantaneous communication with people on the other side of the world
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Global village
Term coined by Marshall McLuhan to describe the effective shrinking of the globe as a result of increased international communication brought about by media technologies
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Hyper-globalisers (global optimists)
Those perspectives which focus on the positive aspects of globalisation, often associated with Neoliberalsim
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Sceptics (global pessimists)
Those perspectives which focus on the negative aspects of globalisation (e.g. Dependency theory). They are critical of how this process has been hijacked by the agenda of the rich world
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Polarisation
The pessimistic view that globalisation is increasing the gap between the rich and the poor
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Cultural homogenization
The idea that cultural differences are erased, with world cultures becoming increasingly the same. Often linked to the ideas of globalization and cultural imperialism
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McDonaldization
Ritzer’s term for the ways in which the organizing principles of a fast-food restaurant chain are coming to dominate and standardize many aspects of economic and cultural life globally
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Localisation (Glocal)
Adapting global culture by giving it a local twist. This create new cultural hybrids in music, the arts, food and other aspects of culture
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Culture of hybridity
A culture that is a ‘mix’ of two or more other cultures, creating a new culture
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De-globalisation
The idea that we might be seeing less economic globalisation as a result of things like the effects of the banking crisis which has slowed down trade and global flows in finance
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Regionalisation
Where most international trade is more likely to be conducted within regions of the world (e.g. within Europe or within Asian) than across the whole globe
