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A Level Sociology (knowledge) > C2: Research Methods > Flashcards

C2: Research Methods Flashcards

Key terms for this topic area

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Sociology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Sociological research

A

A systematic attempt to extend our knowledge and understanding of the social world using rigorous methods

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2
Q

Methods

A

The techniques sociologists use when researching social life (e.g. questionnaires, interviews, observation etc.)

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3
Q

Subjective knowledge

A

An individual’s understanding that comes from their values, experiences and beliefs

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4
Q

Objective knowledge

A

Knowledge that is independent of opinion, prejudice and bias

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5
Q

Confirmation bias

A

Is a tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that reinforces one’s preconceptions

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6
Q

Reliability

A

Whether research can be repeated and the results checked

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7
Q

Validity

A

Whether research accurately describes the real world

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8
Q

Representativeness

A

The extent to which a study gives a good indication of what the whole population believes

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9
Q

Replicable

A

Means repeatable. If a method can be replicated it is more reliable

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10
Q

Triangulation

A

Combining different research methods and different types of data in order to check the validity and reliability of findings

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11
Q

Data

A

The information used in research

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12
Q

Primary data

A

Information generated ‘first hand’ by the sociologist (usually by observation or by asking questions)

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13
Q

Secondary data

A

Information which already exists and doesn’t have to be created by the sociologist

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14
Q

Quantitative data

A

Data in the form of numbers

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15
Q

Qualitative data

A

All types of data that are not in the form of numbers (e.g. textual and visual information)

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16
Q

Practical Issues

A

The influence of constraints such as time, money and access on sociological research

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17
Q

Research ethics

A

The moral guidelines for researchers (e.g. obtaining informed consent from participants, protecting them from harm and keeping their identity secret)

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18
Q

British Sociological Association

A

A professional body for sociologists that publishes a statement of ethical practice for researchers

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19
Q

Theoretical issues

A

The debate about what is the best way of trying to find out about human societies involving perspectives like positivism and interpretivism

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20
Q

Positivism

A

A theory that says the best way for sociologists to produce objective and reliable knowledge of human societies is, as far as possible, to follow the methods of the natural sciences

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21
Q

Interpretivism

A

A theory which argues that sociological research should not emulate the natural sciences. It argues that research should seek to understand how people interpret the world using qualitative methods.

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22
Q

Realism

A

This approach suggests there are strengths and weaknesses to both positivism and interpretivism. Sociologists have to be flexible and adopt the approach and methods that work best in the circumstances

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23
Q

Correlation

A

The degree to which two or more factors are related

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24
Q

Causal relationship

A

This is where one specific thing can be said to make another thing happen

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25
Q

Correlation does not imply causation

A

A phrase used in statistics to emphasise that a correlation between two variables does not necessarily imply that one causes the other

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26
Q

Verstehen

A

Using empathy to understand human behaviour. It refers to understanding the meaning of things from the point of view of your research participants (Weber)

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27
Q

Reflexivity

A

The idea that people attach meanings to things, people and situations. Humans consider what things mean and then decide to act

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28
Q

Comparative method

A

The sociologist collects evidence about different societies or social contexts as they are found in the real world and then identifies similarities and differences between them. Sometimes referred to as a ‘natural experiment’

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29
Q

Social facts

A

A term used by positivists such as Durkheim to describe aspects of social behaviour that can be objectively counted and measured

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30
Q

Social construction of statistics

A

The interpretivist idea that many social statistics on things like ‘crimes’ and ‘suicide’ are not objective social facts. Instead they reflect the biases and interpretations of the people who create these statistics (e.g. the police, coroners etc.)

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31
Q

Social integration

A

The degree to which individuals are tied to their community. Durkheim argued that this was a significant factor in explaining variations in suicide rates.

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32
Q

Experiment

A

A method where the researcher manipulates an aspect of the participant’s environment in order to analyse the effect this has on their behaviour. Can be conducted in real or artificial environments.

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33
Q

Hypothesis

A

An explanation that you can test through study and experimentation

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34
Q

Laboratory experiments

A

Experiments that take place in an artificial environment in which all variables are under the control of the researcher

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35
Q

Field experiments

A

Experiments conducted in the real world where the researcher manipulates an aspect of the participants’ normal social conditions

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36
Q

Variable

A

Any factor that can be controlled or changed

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37
Q

Independent variable

A

The variable chosen by the researcher to be manipulated during an experiment to observe its effects on other variables

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38
Q

Dependent variable

A

That which changes as a result of the researcher manipulating an independent variable

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39
Q

Control group

A

In an experiment a group of subjects closely resembling the treatment experimental group but not receiving the variable under study and thereby serving as a comparison group when results are evaluated

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40
Q

Experimental group

A

The group in an experiment that receives the variable being tested. This group is compared to a control group, which does not receive the test variable

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41
Q

Ecological validity

A

Refers to the extent to which the findings of a research study are able to be generalized to real-life settings

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42
Q

Hawthorne effect

A

Unnatural behaviour by research participants arising from the awareness of being studied

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43
Q

Extraneous variables

A

Variables present in the experiment that aren’t being intentionally studied

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44
Q

Confounding variable

A

An extraneous variable that may affect the dependent variable

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45
Q

Non-participant observation

A

Where the researcher observes from a distance and is not directly involved with those being observed

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46
Q

Participant observation

A

Involves a researcher actually joining the group she or he is observing, and taking part in their activities

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47
Q

Overt role

A

Is one where the researcher reveals to the group being studied his or her true identity and purpose

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48
Q

Covert role

A

Is one where the researcher conceals from the group being studied his or her true identity as a researcher

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49
Q

Field work

A

Observational research taking place in the participants’ natural environment

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50
Q

Field diary

A

A detailed and relatively unstructured record kept of a researcher’s observations

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51
Q

Ethnography

A

A qualitative research design which studies the way of life of a group people. It aims to see the world from their perspective using participant observation over a long period of time as the main method

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52
Q

Going native

A

Refers to the danger for participant observers to become too involved in the group under study, thus losing objectivity and distance

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53
Q

Gate-keepers

A

Are sponsors or individuals who smooth access to the group. They are the key people who let us in, give us permission, or grant access

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54
Q

Key informants

A

The people who become important sources of information during a participant observation study

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55
Q

‘Getting in’

A

Refers to the challenges of gaining entry into a group for participant observation

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56
Q

‘Staying in’

A

Refers to the quality of the relationships that participant observers have to develop with the research participants in order to carry out their research over time

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57
Q

‘Getting out’

A

Refers to the issues (and difficulties) involved in the participant observer leaving the research site, or abandoning their role as researcher

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58
Q

Observation schedule

A

An analytical form, or coding sheet (e.g. a tally chart), filled out by researchers during a structured observation. It carefully specifies beforehand the categories of behaviours or events under scrutiny and under what circumstances they should be assigned to those categories

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59
Q

Front management

A

This involves the participant observer, particularly when in a covert role, marshalling the techniques used by actors in order to give the right impression of themselves to the group

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60
Q

The ‘acceptable incompetent’

A

Where the participant observer pretends to be naive and ignorant as a tactic to elicit information from key informants

61
Q

Questionnaire

A

A list of standardised questions either on paper or increasingly online

62
Q

Postal questionnaire

A

A questionnaire that is sent out to respondents via the mail which they self complete at home. These types of questionnaires are being increasingly replaced by online ones.

63
Q

Pilot study

A

A small scale trial run of a method

64
Q

Coding

A

The process of categorising data for analysis and reporting

65
Q

Closed questions

A

Questions which allow the respondent only a specific range of answers. Set answers mean that these questions are ‘pre-coded’ (i.e. already in categories)

66
Q

Open questions

A

Questions which allow the respondent to reply freely rather than producing a set of answers from which to choose. The answers to these questions have to be ‘post-coded’ for analysis (i.e. read and then categorised)

67
Q

Graded questions

A

Respondents are asked how much they agree with questions and can record their response on a scale (e.g. Likert scale)

68
Q

Leading question

A

A question that prompts or encourages the answer wanted

69
Q

Sociological concepts

A

The ideas sociologists use to make sense of society

70
Q

Operationalisation

A

Turning a sociological concept into something defined and measurable

71
Q

Indicators

A

The things we use to operationalise sociological concepts. For example occupational ranking (jobs) is a common way of operationalising the concept of ‘social class’

72
Q

Response rate

A

The proportion of people who actually reply to the questions asked

73
Q

Anonymity

A

Means without a name. Allowing respondents not to put their name on questionnaires may improve the validity of collected data

74
Q

The meaning problem

A

Where the same word used in a questionnaire may be interpreted in different ways by respondents

75
Q

Imposition problem

A

Where the researcher risks forcing their own views or framework on the people being researched. This might occur through either the selection of questions used before data collection or by the selection of data afterwards.

76
Q

Structured interviews

A

An interview where a set of identical questions are asked in exactly the same way to each interviewee. It is basically a questionnaire read out and the answers recorded by the interviewer

77
Q

Unstructured interviews

A

These interviews are more like a conversation, with the questions and answers not following any fixed predetermined path

78
Q

Formal interviews

A

Another name for structured interviews

79
Q

Informal interviews

A

Another name for unstructured interviews

80
Q

Semi-structured interviews

A

These interviews have less flexibility than unstructured interviews and less rigidity than structured interviews

81
Q

Interview schedule

A

The guide an interviewer uses when conducting an interview. For structured interviews this will be a list of questions in a particular order. For more unstructured interviews it might consist of a list of topics or there might not be a written guide at all

82
Q

Rapport

A

The feeling of identity and trust between researcher and the people being researched which allows the collection of appropriate data

83
Q

Interviewer bias

A

Where the interviewee’s responses are influenced by the interviewer

84
Q

Social desirability effects

A

Where people studied tend to present themselves in the best possible light when being researched.

85
Q

Interview transcript

A

A written or printed copy of what was said during an interview

86
Q

Respondent verification

A

Provides the people being researched with the opportunity to assess adequacy of data and preliminary results as well as to confirm particular aspects of the data

87
Q

Group interviews

A

An interview done with multiple interviewees at the same time

88
Q

Focus group

A

Where a group of people will be encouraged to discuss an issue, with the researcher acting as a moderator or facilitator helping to keep the discussion on topic and encourage all members of the group to participate

89
Q

Sample

A

A group selected by the researcher from the target population for study purposes

90
Q

Target population

A

The group of people who are the focus of attention for the study

91
Q

Sampling frame

A

An individual, household or social group that is part of a sampling frame that a sociologist may sample as part of a wider target population

92
Q

Sampling fraction

A

The proportion of the target population that is sampled

93
Q

Representative sample

A

A sample with the same characteristics as the target population as a whole

94
Q

Generalisability

A

Where propositions derived from studying a sample of people with specific characteristics can be applied to all people who have those characteristics

95
Q

Sampling error

A

The difference between data based on an entire target population and data collected from a sample of that population

96
Q

Probability sampling

A

A technical term for random sampling techniques which are based on an unbiased method of choosing the sample that gives everyone in the target population an equal or known chance of being included

97
Q

Non-probability sampling

A

A technical term for non-random sampling techniques where human judgement is involved in the selection of the sample

98
Q

Simple random sample

A

A sample method where each member of the target population has exactly the same chance of being picked. A basic way of doing this would be to take names from a hat, more sophisticated versions involve computer generated numbers.

99
Q

Systematic sampling

A

A sample method which involves taking a series of names from a sampling frame at set intervals (e.g. every tenth name)

100
Q

Stratified sampling

A

A sampling method in which the sampling frame is divided into strata (different groups), e.g. into males and females, age groups etc., and a random sample is taken from each category

101
Q

Opportunity sampling

A

The method is also known as convenience sampling. The sample is made up of those who are readily available and suitable for the research

102
Q

Quota sampling

A

This method is like a stratified random sample but the selection is not random. The researcher calculates how many people from each group (e.g. men and women, ages etc.) are needed and approaches people who match these characteristics until they have enough people for each group

103
Q

Snowball sampling

A

In this technique, the researcher finds an initial participant, who puts them in touch with others. These contacts are then used to find new participants - and the sample grows in size

104
Q

Volunteer sampling

A

Also known as a self-selecting sample. In this approach, the researcher places an advert (for instance, in a newspaper) and participants volunteer to take part

105
Q

Purposive sampling

A

Is an approach to sampling that is led by decisions about who you need to talk to or observe, what kinds of people you need to interview, what kinds of settings you need to observe..? and so on

106
Q

Secondary quantitative data

A

Numerical data produced by somebody other than the researcher. The main example would be official statistics

107
Q

Official statistics

A

Numerical data produced by national and local government bodies

108
Q

The Census

A

A government survey carried out every 10 years which delivers a questionnaire to every household in the UK in order to find out facts about the British population

109
Q

‘Hard’ statistics

A

Statistics that are very reliable and valid e.g. marriage and divorce rates, birth rates etc.

110
Q

‘Soft’ statistics

A

Statistics that lack reliability and validity e.g. crime statistics

111
Q

The ‘dark figure’ of crime

A

A phrase used to describe the crimes not recorded in official statistics because they are either unreported or the police do not record them

112
Q

Political bias

A

In the case of official statistics this is when statistics are deliberately manipulated by the government

113
Q

Secondary qualitative data

A

Non-numerical data produced by somebody other than the researcher. The term ‘documents’ is generally used to describe these sources of information

114
Q

Public documents

A

These are documents produced by organisations such as government departments, schools, the media, business and pressure groups

115
Q

Personal documents

A

Include items such as letters, diaries, photo albums and autobiographies. These are first-person accounts of social events and personal experiences and often include the writer’s feelings and attitudes (also called ‘life documents’)

116
Q

Diaries

A

Written accounts of events as experienced and interpreted by the author, they are a type of personal document which can be of great use to the sociologist

117
Q

Historical documents

A

Documents produced in the recent or distant past which give insight into social phenomena, events and trends

118
Q

Media texts

A

Refers to any media product e.g. Film, TV programme, webpage, newspaper article etc…

119
Q

Literature review

A

This is an appraisal of existing research into a topic; it includes a summary of what is already known, as well as highlighting areas of debate or gaps in knowledge

120
Q

Authenticity

A

A way of assessing documents (John Scott). It means: ‘Is the document genuine?’

121
Q

Credibility

A

A way of assessing documents (John Scott). It means: ‘Does the document provide a true picture or does it distort events?’

122
Q

Representativeness (documents)

A

A way of assessing documents (John Scott). It means: ‘Is the document typical or a one-off?’

123
Q

Meaning

A

A way of assessing documents (John Scott). It means: ‘What does the document mean to those who produced it, to the people who see or hear it and to the researcher who interprets it?’

124
Q

Formal content analysis

A

This is essentially a quantitative method which counts the frequency of particular words, images or themes in documents such as media texts

125
Q

Content analysis schedule

A

A list of categories to be observed in the media text or other type of document, which are ticked off as they are observed

126
Q

Qualitative content analysis

A

Non-numerical forms of content analysis including semiotics

127
Q

Semiotics

A

The study of signs. This approach aims to uncover the hidden meanings that lie behind the use of particular words or images

128
Q

Decoding

A

In semiotics, this is the process of interpreting a sign. This involves establishing denotations and connotations.

129
Q

Sign

A

In semiotics this is something that can be interpreted as having a symbolic meaning, which is therefore able to communicate information to the one interpreting or decoding it. Examples would be words, phrases, images, symbols and sounds

130
Q

Denotation (Signifier)

A

Refers to the literal meaning of a word, the “dictionary definition” or, in the case of images and sounds, is simply a literal description of what we can see or hear

131
Q

Connotation (Signified)

A

Refers to the meaning behind a denotation. It is the emotional and imaginative association surrounding a word, image or sound

132
Q

Textual analysis

A

A method which closely examines the ‘text’ of a document to see how it encourages a particular reading and creates a particular impression

133
Q

Polysemic

A

Is the capacity for a sign (such as a word, phrase, or symbol) to have multiple meanings

134
Q

Audience research

A

An investigation of audience understanding of and response to documents produced by the media

135
Q

Research design

A

The overall “research strategy” including individual methods of sampling, data generation and analysis.

136
Q

Social survey

A

A research design where the researcher gathers standardised and structured information from a representative cross section of their target population (usually large). This data is often gathered using questionnaires.

137
Q

Factual survey

A

A survey designed to find out ‘facts’ about the target population (e.g. the Census).

138
Q

Attitude survey

A

A survey designed to uncover differences in beliefs, values and behaviour

139
Q

Explanatory survey

A

A survey designed to test a theory or hypothesis

140
Q

Case study

A

A detailed study of a single example of whatever the sociologist is interested in – for example, a person, a school, a village, a firm, a social event etc.

141
Q

Life history

A

A case study of a particular individual. This is often based on a series of in-depth interviews with the individual concerned.

142
Q

Longitudinal studies

A

Involves a study of a sample of people who are investigated (usually by questionnaires or interviews), not only at the time of the original selection, but also at regular intervals afterwards

143
Q

Sample attrition

A

Where the original sample used in a longitudinal study get smaller over time as people die, can’t be traced or become unwilling to participate

144
Q

Methodological pluralism

A

Combining different research methods and different kinds of data in order to build up a fuller picture of social life

145
Q

Inductive approach

A

An approach to research where theoretical explanations are supposed to be an outcome of an investigation rather than something that precedes it. Qualitative research often follows this approach

146
Q

Deductive approach

A

An approach to research where you begin with a theoretical explanation or hypothesis which is then tested by carrying out an investigation. Often quantitative approaches (particularly experiments) follow this approach

147
Q

Grounded theory

A

An inductive approach for looking systematically at (mostly) qualitative data (like transcripts of interviews or protocols of observations) aiming at the generation or discovery of theories.

148
Q

Peer review

A

The process of subjecting the research of a sociologist to the scrutiny of others who are experts in the same field, before a paper describing this work is published in a journal or as a book.

149
Q

Sampling unit

A

An individual, household or social group that is part of a sampling frame that a sociologist may sample as part of a wider target population

A Level Sociology (knowledge) (5 decks)

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