C2: Research Methods Flashcards
Key terms for this topic area
1
Q
Sociological research
A
A systematic attempt to extend our knowledge and understanding of the social world using rigorous methods
2
Q
Methods
A
The techniques sociologists use when researching social life (e.g. questionnaires, interviews, observation etc.)
3
Q
Subjective knowledge
A
An individual’s understanding that comes from their values, experiences and beliefs
4
Q
Objective knowledge
A
Knowledge that is independent of opinion, prejudice and bias
5
Q
Confirmation bias
A
Is a tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that reinforces one’s preconceptions
6
Q
Reliability
A
Whether research can be repeated and the results checked
7
Q
Validity
A
Whether research accurately describes the real world
8
Q
Representativeness
A
The extent to which a study gives a good indication of what the whole population believes
9
Q
Replicable
A
Means repeatable. If a method can be replicated it is more reliable
10
Q
Triangulation
A
Combining different research methods and different types of data in order to check the validity and reliability of findings
11
Q
Data
A
The information used in research
12
Q
Primary data
A
Information generated ‘first hand’ by the sociologist (usually by observation or by asking questions)
13
Q
Secondary data
A
Information which already exists and doesn’t have to be created by the sociologist
14
Q
Quantitative data
A
Data in the form of numbers
15
Q
Qualitative data
A
All types of data that are not in the form of numbers (e.g. textual and visual information)
16
Q
Practical Issues
A
The influence of constraints such as time, money and access on sociological research
17
Q
Research ethics
A
The moral guidelines for researchers (e.g. obtaining informed consent from participants, protecting them from harm and keeping their identity secret)
18
Q
British Sociological Association
A
A professional body for sociologists that publishes a statement of ethical practice for researchers
19
Q
Theoretical issues
A
The debate about what is the best way of trying to find out about human societies involving perspectives like positivism and interpretivism
20
Q
Positivism
A
A theory that says the best way for sociologists to produce objective and reliable knowledge of human societies is, as far as possible, to follow the methods of the natural sciences
21
Q
Interpretivism
A
A theory which argues that sociological research should not emulate the natural sciences. It argues that research should seek to understand how people interpret the world using qualitative methods.
22
Q
Realism
A
This approach suggests there are strengths and weaknesses to both positivism and interpretivism. Sociologists have to be flexible and adopt the approach and methods that work best in the circumstances
23
Q
Correlation
A
The degree to which two or more factors are related
24
Q
Causal relationship
A
This is where one specific thing can be said to make another thing happen
25
Correlation does not imply causation
A phrase used in statistics to emphasise that a correlation between two variables does not necessarily imply that one causes the other
26
Verstehen
Using empathy to understand human behaviour. It refers to understanding the meaning of things from the point of view of your research participants (Weber)
27
Reflexivity
The idea that people attach meanings to things, people and situations. Humans consider what things mean and then decide to act
28
Comparative method
The sociologist collects evidence about different societies or social contexts as they are found in the real world and then identifies similarities and differences between them. Sometimes referred to as a ‘natural experiment'
29
Social facts
A term used by positivists such as Durkheim to describe aspects of social behaviour that can be objectively counted and measured
30
Social construction of statistics
The interpretivist idea that many social statistics on things like 'crimes' and 'suicide' are not objective social facts. Instead they reflect the biases and interpretations of the people who create these statistics (e.g. the police, coroners etc.)
31
Social integration
The degree to which individuals are tied to their community. Durkheim argued that this was a significant factor in explaining variations in suicide rates.
32
Experiment
A method where the researcher manipulates an aspect of the participant's environment in order to analyse the effect this has on their behaviour. Can be conducted in real or artificial environments.
33
Hypothesis
An explanation that you can test through study and experimentation
34
Laboratory experiments
Experiments that take place in an artificial environment in which all variables are under the control of the researcher
35
Field experiments
Experiments conducted in the real world where the researcher manipulates an aspect of the participants' normal social conditions
36
Variable
Any factor that can be controlled or changed
37
Independent variable
The variable chosen by the researcher to be manipulated during an experiment to observe its effects on other variables
38
Dependent variable
That which changes as a result of the researcher manipulating an independent variable
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Control group
In an experiment a group of subjects closely resembling the treatment experimental group but not receiving the variable under study and thereby serving as a comparison group when results are evaluated
40
Experimental group
The group in an experiment that receives the variable being tested. This group is compared to a control group, which does not receive the test variable
41
Ecological validity
Refers to the extent to which the findings of a research study are able to be generalized to real-life settings
42
Hawthorne effect
Unnatural behaviour by research participants arising from the awareness of being studied
43
Extraneous variables
Variables present in the experiment that aren't being intentionally studied
44
Confounding variable
An extraneous variable that may affect the dependent variable
45
Non-participant observation
Where the researcher observes from a distance and is not directly involved with those being observed
46
Participant observation
Involves a researcher actually joining the group she or he is observing, and taking part in their activities
47
Overt role
Is one where the researcher reveals to the group being studied his or her true identity and purpose
48
Covert role
Is one where the researcher conceals from the group being studied his or her true identity as a researcher
49
Field work
Observational research taking place in the participants' natural environment
50
Field diary
A detailed and relatively unstructured record kept of a researcher’s observations
51
Ethnography
A qualitative research design which studies the way of life of a group people. It aims to see the world from their perspective using participant observation over a long period of time as the main method
52
Going native
Refers to the danger for participant observers to become too involved in the group under study, thus losing objectivity and distance
53
Gate-keepers
Are sponsors or individuals who smooth access to the group. They are the key people who let us in, give us permission, or grant access
54
Key informants
The people who become important sources of information during a participant observation study
55
'Getting in'
Refers to the challenges of gaining entry into a group for participant observation
56
'Staying in'
Refers to the quality of the relationships that participant observers have to develop with the research participants in order to carry out their research over time
57
'Getting out'
Refers to the issues (and difficulties) involved in the participant observer leaving the research site, or abandoning their role as researcher
58
Observation schedule
An analytical form, or coding sheet (e.g. a tally chart), filled out by researchers during a structured observation. It carefully specifies beforehand the categories of behaviours or events under scrutiny and under what circumstances they should be assigned to those categories
59
Front management
This involves the participant observer, particularly when in a covert role, marshalling the techniques used by actors in order to give the right impression of themselves to the group
60
The 'acceptable incompetent'
Where the participant observer pretends to be naive and ignorant as a tactic to elicit information from key informants
61
Questionnaire
A list of standardised questions either on paper or increasingly online
62
Postal questionnaire
A questionnaire that is sent out to respondents via the mail which they self complete at home. These types of questionnaires are being increasingly replaced by online ones.
63
Pilot study
A small scale trial run of a method
64
Coding
The process of categorising data for analysis and reporting
65
Closed questions
Questions which allow the respondent only a specific range of answers. Set answers mean that these questions are 'pre-coded' (i.e. already in categories)
66
Open questions
Questions which allow the respondent to reply freely rather than producing a set of answers from which to choose. The answers to these questions have to be 'post-coded' for analysis (i.e. read and then categorised)
67
Graded questions
Respondents are asked how much they agree with questions and can record their response on a scale (e.g. Likert scale)
68
Leading question
A question that prompts or encourages the answer wanted
69
Sociological concepts
The ideas sociologists use to make sense of society
70
Operationalisation
Turning a sociological concept into something defined and measurable
71
Indicators
The things we use to operationalise sociological concepts. For example occupational ranking (jobs) is a common way of operationalising the concept of 'social class'
72
Response rate
The proportion of people who actually reply to the questions asked
73
Anonymity
Means without a name. Allowing respondents not to put their name on questionnaires may improve the validity of collected data
74
The meaning problem
Where the same word used in a questionnaire may be interpreted in different ways by respondents
75
Imposition problem
Where the researcher risks forcing their own views or framework on the people being researched. This might occur through either the selection of questions used before data collection or by the selection of data afterwards.
76
Structured interviews
An interview where a set of identical questions are asked in exactly the same way to each interviewee. It is basically a questionnaire read out and the answers recorded by the interviewer
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Unstructured interviews
These interviews are more like a conversation, with the questions and answers not following any fixed predetermined path
78
Formal interviews
Another name for structured interviews
79
Informal interviews
Another name for unstructured interviews
80
Semi-structured interviews
These interviews have less flexibility than unstructured interviews and less rigidity than structured interviews
81
Interview schedule
The guide an interviewer uses when conducting an interview. For structured interviews this will be a list of questions in a particular order. For more unstructured interviews it might consist of a list of topics or there might not be a written guide at all
82
Rapport
The feeling of identity and trust between researcher and the people being researched which allows the collection of appropriate data
83
Interviewer bias
Where the interviewee’s responses are influenced by the interviewer
84
Social desirability effects
Where people studied tend to present themselves in the best possible light when being researched.
85
Interview transcript
A written or printed copy of what was said during an interview
86
Respondent verification
Provides the people being researched with the opportunity to assess adequacy of data and preliminary results as well as to confirm particular aspects of the data
87
Group interviews
An interview done with multiple interviewees at the same time
88
Focus group
Where a group of people will be encouraged to discuss an issue, with the researcher acting as a moderator or facilitator helping to keep the discussion on topic and encourage all members of the group to participate
89
Sample
A group selected by the researcher from the target population for study purposes
90
Target population
The group of people who are the focus of attention for the study
91
Sampling frame
An individual, household or social group that is part of a sampling frame that a sociologist may sample as part of a wider target population
92
Sampling fraction
The proportion of the target population that is sampled
93
Representative sample
A sample with the same characteristics as the target population as a whole
94
Generalisability
Where propositions derived from studying a sample of people with specific characteristics can be applied to all people who have those characteristics
95
Sampling error
The difference between data based on an entire target population and data collected from a sample of that population
96
Probability sampling
A technical term for random sampling techniques which are based on an unbiased method of choosing the sample that gives everyone in the target population an equal or known chance of being included
97
Non-probability sampling
A technical term for non-random sampling techniques where human judgement is involved in the selection of the sample
98
Simple random sample
A sample method where each member of the target population has exactly the same chance of being picked. A basic way of doing this would be to take names from a hat, more sophisticated versions involve computer generated numbers.
99
Systematic sampling
A sample method which involves taking a series of names from a sampling frame at set intervals (e.g. every tenth name)
100
Stratified sampling
A sampling method in which the sampling frame is divided into strata (different groups), e.g. into males and females, age groups etc., and a random sample is taken from each category
101
Opportunity sampling
The method is also known as convenience sampling. The sample is made up of those who are readily available and suitable for the research
102
Quota sampling
This method is like a stratified random sample but the selection is not random. The researcher calculates how many people from each group (e.g. men and women, ages etc.) are needed and approaches people who match these characteristics until they have enough people for each group
103
Snowball sampling
In this technique, the researcher finds an initial participant, who puts them in touch with others. These contacts are then used to find new participants - and the sample grows in size
104
Volunteer sampling
Also known as a self-selecting sample. In this approach, the researcher places an advert (for instance, in a newspaper) and participants volunteer to take part
105
Purposive sampling
Is an approach to sampling that is led by decisions about who you need to talk to or observe, what kinds of people you need to interview, what kinds of settings you need to observe..? and so on
106
Secondary quantitative data
Numerical data produced by somebody other than the researcher. The main example would be official statistics
107
Official statistics
Numerical data produced by national and local government bodies
108
The Census
A government survey carried out every 10 years which delivers a questionnaire to every household in the UK in order to find out facts about the British population
109
'Hard' statistics
Statistics that are very reliable and valid e.g. marriage and divorce rates, birth rates etc.
110
'Soft' statistics
Statistics that lack reliability and validity e.g. crime statistics
111
The 'dark figure' of crime
A phrase used to describe the crimes not recorded in official statistics because they are either unreported or the police do not record them
112
Political bias
In the case of official statistics this is when statistics are deliberately manipulated by the government
113
Secondary qualitative data
Non-numerical data produced by somebody other than the researcher. The term 'documents' is generally used to describe these sources of information
114
Public documents
These are documents produced by organisations such as government departments, schools, the media, business and pressure groups
115
Personal documents
Include items such as letters, diaries, photo albums and autobiographies. These are first-person accounts of social events and personal experiences and often include the writer’s feelings and attitudes (also called 'life documents')
116
Diaries
Written accounts of events as experienced and interpreted by the author, they are a type of personal document which can be of great use to the sociologist
117
Historical documents
Documents produced in the recent or distant past which give insight into social phenomena, events and trends
118
Media texts
Refers to any media product e.g. Film, TV programme, webpage, newspaper article etc…
119
Literature review
This is an appraisal of existing research into a topic; it includes a summary of what is already known, as well as highlighting areas of debate or gaps in knowledge
120
Authenticity
A way of assessing documents (John Scott). It means: 'Is the document genuine?'
121
Credibility
A way of assessing documents (John Scott). It means: 'Does the document provide a true picture or does it distort events?'
122
Representativeness (documents)
A way of assessing documents (John Scott). It means: 'Is the document typical or a one-off?'
123
Meaning
A way of assessing documents (John Scott). It means: 'What does the document mean to those who produced it, to the people who see or hear it and to the researcher who interprets it?'
124
Formal content analysis
This is essentially a quantitative method which counts the frequency of particular words, images or themes in documents such as media texts
125
Content analysis schedule
A list of categories to be observed in the media text or other type of document, which are ticked off as they are observed
126
Qualitative content analysis
Non-numerical forms of content analysis including semiotics
127
Semiotics
The study of signs. This approach aims to uncover the hidden meanings that lie behind the use of particular words or images
128
Decoding
In semiotics, this is the process of interpreting a sign. This involves establishing denotations and connotations.
129
Sign
In semiotics this is something that can be interpreted as having a symbolic meaning, which is therefore able to communicate information to the one interpreting or decoding it. Examples would be words, phrases, images, symbols and sounds
130
Denotation (Signifier)
Refers to the literal meaning of a word, the "dictionary definition" or, in the case of images and sounds, is simply a literal description of what we can see or hear
131
Connotation (Signified)
Refers to the meaning behind a denotation. It is the emotional and imaginative association surrounding a word, image or sound
132
Textual analysis
A method which closely examines the 'text' of a document to see how it encourages a particular reading and creates a particular impression
133
Polysemic
Is the capacity for a sign (such as a word, phrase, or symbol) to have multiple meanings
134
Audience research
An investigation of audience understanding of and response to documents produced by the media
135
Research design
The overall "research strategy" including individual methods of sampling, data generation and analysis.
136
Social survey
A research design where the researcher gathers standardised and structured information from a representative cross section of their target population (usually large). This data is often gathered using questionnaires.
137
Factual survey
A survey designed to find out ‘facts’ about the target population (e.g. the Census).
138
Attitude survey
A survey designed to uncover differences in beliefs, values and behaviour
139
Explanatory survey
A survey designed to test a theory or hypothesis
140
Case study
A detailed study of a single example of whatever the sociologist is interested in – for example, a person, a school, a village, a firm, a social event etc.
141
Life history
A case study of a particular individual. This is often based on a series of in-depth interviews with the individual concerned.
142
Longitudinal studies
Involves a study of a sample of people who are investigated (usually by questionnaires or interviews), not only at the time of the original selection, but also at regular intervals afterwards
143
Sample attrition
Where the original sample used in a longitudinal study get smaller over time as people die, can’t be traced or become unwilling to participate
144
Methodological pluralism
Combining different research methods and different kinds of data in order to build up a fuller picture of social life
145
Inductive approach
An approach to research where theoretical explanations are supposed to be an outcome of an investigation rather than something that precedes it. Qualitative research often follows this approach
146
Deductive approach
An approach to research where you begin with a theoretical explanation or hypothesis which is then tested by carrying out an investigation. Often quantitative approaches (particularly experiments) follow this approach
147
Grounded theory
An inductive approach for looking systematically at (mostly) qualitative data (like transcripts of interviews or protocols of observations) aiming at the generation or discovery of theories.
148
Peer review
The process of subjecting the research of a sociologist to the scrutiny of others who are experts in the same field, before a paper describing this work is published in a journal or as a book.
149
Sampling unit
An individual, household or social group that is part of a sampling frame that a sociologist may sample as part of a wider target population
