C1: Media Flashcards
Key terms for this topic area
Medium
The technological means by which content is communicated between an origin and a destination, such as a telegraph, telephone, TV, book and so on
Media
The plural of the word ‘medium’ which refers to a channel of communication
Mass media
Forms of communication that transmit information to large audiences through instruments such as newspapers, radio, TV, cinema and the internet
Media text
This term refers to any media product a sociologist wishes to examine. E.g. film, TV programme, web-page, newspaper article etc.
Media as an agency of socialisation
The idea that the media helps to transmit the culture of society by teaching people norms, values etc.
Marxist view of the media
A theory which argues that the media is an ideological instrument of the ruling class. It argues that media owners and advertisers have the biggest influence on media content
Ideological power
The ability to shape people’s minds in terms that favour the power holders. Control of the media can potentially be used for this purpose
Ruling class ideology
A set of ideas that justify the inequalities produced by capitalism. These are transmitted by the capitalist class through agents of socialisation such as the media
‘The new opium of the masses’
A phrase used by Ralph Miliband to describe the ideological effects of the media on audiences
Hegemony
A term used by the Marxist Gramsci to describe the domination of ruling class ideology in society. These ideas help to legitimate capitalism and are accepted as ‘common sense’ by large sections of the population
Legitimation
The process by which the mass of the population come to accept the rule of the few as natural and normal and inequality as fair
False consciousness
A Marxist term suggesting that the working class do not see the true nature of their exploitation, or the fact that they have common interests, because of the influence of ideology
Myth of meritocracy
The (false) belief that capitalism is a fair system where there are equal opportunities for all
American Dream
The idea that equality of opportunity is available to any American, allowing the highest aspirations and goals to be achieved.
Misdirection
A form of deception in which the attention of an audience is focused on one thing in order to distract its attention from another
Poverty porn
Any type of media which exploits the poor’s condition in order to gain audiences
Frankfurt School
A group of German Marxists, e.g. Theodor Adorno, who argue that the capitalist ruling class use the media in an ideological way to control society’s thinking, thus ensuring passive conformity
Culture industry
A Marxist idea, which states that culture (e.g. music and the arts) has become something to be manufactured and sold, in order to make a profit by media companies
Popular culture
The culture of ordinary people
Mass culture
The idea that the mass media are responsible for a commercialised popular culture which revolves around superficial entertainment. This stifles creativity, imagination and critical thought in society
False needs
The outcome of sustained advertising which manipulates people into thinking that a consumer item is vital to their social well being
Pluralist view of the media
A theory which argues that audiences rather than owners, editors or journalists have the most influence on shaping media content. As media audiences are diverse this in turn leads to lots of choice and diversity within the media.
Media saturation
The idea that we live in a society where we are being constantly bombarded by messages and images from the media . As a result media images now dominate and distort the way we see the world
Wireless Communications
Things like smart phones, lap-tops and tablet computers
‘Old media’
Media which rely on print and analogue communication, such as newspapers, print magazines and pre-digital TV and radio
‘New Media’
Media based on digital computers, such as the internet, digital TV and digital radio
Digital natives
A term used to describe younger generations who have grown up in a digital media environment
Digital immigrants
A term used to describe older generations who did not have digital media when they were growing up. They have had to adapt to these technologies later on in life
Digital divide
Inequality between those who can and those who can’t afford, or don’t have the technology or skills to access, the ‘new media’
Web 1.0
A general reference to the World Wide Web during its first few years of operation before blogs, wikis, social networking sites and Web-based applications became commonplace
Web 2.0
A term used to describe the way in which the World Wide Web is being used in a more interactive and collaborative way. E.g. Wikipedia, You-Tube and social networking sites
The medium is the message
Marshall McLuhan’s argument that throughout history what has been communicated has been less important than the particular medium through which people communicate. The technology that transfers the message changes us and changes society, the individual, the family, work, leisure and more
User generated content
Any form of content such as blogs, wikis, discussion forums, posts, chats, tweets, podcasting, digital images, video and other forms of media that was created by users of an online system or service
Prosumer
A term used by David Gauntlett to describe a person who both consumes and produces media
DIY media
Amateur and usually small-scale forms of media
Citizen journalism
Where the public, rather than professional journalists, collect and report news. They often use their smart phones to do this
Feedback loop
Where published images and videos of things like police brutality towards protests cause outrage and indignation, and that sense of anger feeds into further protests
The network society
A term used by Manuell Castells to describe the social, political, economic and cultural changes caused by the spread of networked, digital information and communications technologies
Counter-ideologies
Sets of ideas that challenge the ideology of the dominant groups in society
Iran’s ‘Green Revolution’
Protests against a rigged election in Iran in 2009. The protests were notable for being one of the first to use social media such as twitter as a political tool of protest
The Arab Spring
A term used to describe the recent protests in North Africa and the Middle East. ‘New media’ and ‘citizen journalism’ have played an important role in these protests. (sometimes called the ‘Facebook revolutions’)
Meme
An idea, behaviour, or style that spreads virally from person to person within a culture or globally via the media
Indignadas
A protest movement that emerged in Spain in May 2011 which was inspired by the tactics of the Arab Spring including the use of social media and occupation of urban space
The Occupy movement
A protest which started in New York during September 2011 as a critique of the power of banks and big business over the government. ‘We are the 99%’ was a key meme of this movement
Black Lives Matter
This movement began with the use of the hashtag #BlackLivesMatter on social media, after the acquittal of George Zimmerman in the shooting death of African-American teen Trayvon Martin.
Public media companies
Media companies which exist to provide a public service rather than a profit (e.g. BBC) or are government owned (e.g. Channel 4)
Private media companies
Profit seeking media companies which are either owned by individuals, families or a group of share-holders
Monopoly
A situation in which a single company or group owns all or nearly all of the market for a given type of product or service
Oligopoly
A situation in which a particular market is controlled by a small group of companies. The concentration of media ownership creates this situation
Media concentration
A process whereby progressively fewer individuals or organizations control increasing shares of the mass media (also known as media consolidation or media convergence)
Vertical integration
Where companies try to control every single aspect of a particular media industry. E.g. A media company may make films, produce and distribute the films and own the cinemas where the film is shown
Horizontal integration
Where a media company grows by buying up competitors in the same section of the market. E.g. the technology company Google buying You-Tube a few years ago
Diversification
Where media companies look to operate in as many types of media markets and industries as possible in order to spread risk
Synergy
This is where a large media company can produce many different versions of the same product. E.g. As a movie, a soundtrack, a comic, a video game etc.
Media conglomerates
A media corporation that consists of different brands with diversified interests in a very wide range of products and services. The biggest have a global reach and examples include Disney & News Corporation
Subsidiaries
The different companies or brands that make up a Media Conglomerate
Technological convergence
Media devices that do more than one thing. E.g. A mobile phone which takes video and pictures, downloads movies etc.
Cyber media companies
Media companies which have their origins in computer technology and online activity e.g. Google and Apple
Democracy
A system of government where the population have a say in how the country is run. This depends on a public which is informed, aware and debates the issues of the day
Left wing
Political beliefs associated with the idea that the government should play a strong role in redistributing wealth and promoting social justice
Right wing
Political beliefs that emphasise a minimal role for the government in relation to the economy and social welfare
Phone hacking scandal
A controversy involving the now defunct News of the World. Employees of the newspaper (owned by Murdoch’s News Corporation) were accused of engaging in phone hacking, police bribery, and exercising improper influence in the pursuit of stories
The Leveson Inquiry
An inquiry investigating the role of the press and police in the phone-hacking scandal.
Free press
A situation where the media, including newspapers, are able to express any opinions they want, even if these criticise the government
Public sphere
A term used by Habermas to describe an area in social life where individuals can come together to freely discuss and identify societal problems, and through that discussion influence political action
The Fourth Estate
A phrase used to describe the role of the media in protecting democracy and freedom
Prisim
A surveillance program exposed by Edward Snowden & operated by the National Security Agency in the USA, allowing it to access information on its targets from the servers of some of the USA’s biggest technology companies
Censorship
A form of regulation concerned with restricting or banning particular kinds of content on the basis that they are offensive or socially harmful
Closed platform
A software system where the carrier or service provider has control over applications, content, and media, and restricts convenient access to non-approved applications or content (also known as a ‘walled garden’)
Press baron
An influential newspaper publisher or owner who usually controls more than one widely circulated newspaper. E.g. Rupert Murdoch
Neo-Marxist view of the media
This theory focuses on the way in which media professionals largely control the media. It is assumed that they mostly share the outlook and values of media owners due to their privileged social backgrounds (also called the Hegemonic approach)
Capitalism
An economic system based on the private ownership & control of the means of production. In this system most of the media is owned by private corporations who make money by selling audiences to advertisers
Consumer culture
A culture saturated by the buying and selling of material goods, to the extent that consumerism dominates cultural life and consumption habits become markers of identity, status and happiness
Allocative control
Refers to the power of media owners to distribute funds within a media organisation and decide its overall policies and goals
Operational control
This refers to the day to day control of media companies which is largely left to media professionals
Reflection theory
An approach that suggests media reflect or ‘mirror’ existing social values or relations
Consumer sovereignty
The pluralist idea that it is ultimately the public, as consumers of the media, who have the most control over the media
Niche media
Forms of media that are targeted narrowly towards particular groups or types of consumers
Fallacy of choice
McChesney’s argument that we have only the ‘appearance of choice’ as various media are selling the same sort of products. E.g. 100s of digital TV channels showing the same kind of shows
Social construction of the news
The idea that ‘the news’ is a socially manufactured product because it is the end result of a selective process. Journalists cannot report every event which occurs - therefore what counts as news is shaped by a range of influences (e.g. owners, advertisers, media professionals, organisational constraints etc)
The press
Originally this term referred to newspapers but it is now also applied to the news media in general
Tabloids
The ‘popular press’. Newspapers aimed at the working and lower middle class. E.g. The Sun, Daily Mirror, The Mail and Express
Broadsheests
The ‘quality press’. More serious newspapers aimed at the middle and upper classes. E.g. The Times, Telegraph and Guardian
Advertising
The business of trying to persuade people to buy products or services. This is usually the most important form of revenue for private (commercial) media companies
Infotainment
The mix of entertainment and information which now sometimes passes for ‘news’
Public Interest stories
Any news item affecting the rights, health, or finances of the public at large
Gate keepers
In the sociology of the media, this term refers to editors of the news media, whose decisions control what does and does not get published
Agenda setting
The power of the mass media to decide which events or issues are most deserving of public attention
Newsworthy
Those items selected by editors and journalists as being of importance and thus which should be broadcast
News values
A term used by Galtung & Ruge to describe the general guidelines or criteria that media professionals use to determine the worth of a news story i.e. is the story interesting enough to grab a significant audience?
Frequency (news value)
Events that occur suddenly and fit well with the news organization’s schedule are more likely to be reported than those that occur gradually or at inconvenient times of day or night
Familiarity/Proximity (news value)
To do with people or places close to home
Negativity (news value)
Bad news is more newsworthy than good news
Unexpectedness (news value)
If an event is out of the ordinary it will have a greater effect than something that is an everyday occurrence.
Unambiguity (news value)
Events whose implications are clear make for better copy than those that are open to more than one interpretation
Personalization (news value)
Events that can be portrayed as the actions of individuals will be more attractive than one in which there is no such “human interest.”
Meaningfulness (news value)
This relates to the sense of identification the audience has with the topic. E.g. stories concerned with people who speak the same language, look the same, and share the same culture as the audience receive more coverage
Reference to elite nations (news value)
Stories concerned with global powers receive more attention than those concerned with less influential nations
Reference to elite persons (news value)
Stories concerned with the rich, powerful, famous and infamous get more coverage
Composition (news value)
When editors may seek to provide a balance of different types of coverage e.g. a balance of foreign and national news stories
Predictability (news value)
An event is more likely to be covered if it has been pre-scheduled. E.g. an important political summit
Hierarchy of credibility
Means journalists are more likely to trust or believe the views and opinions of those in positions of power, like government ministers and senior police officers. In contrast those without power e.g. protesters are less trusted
Primary Definers
Those individuals whose powerful position in society allows them better access to the media than those in other groups, and whose views, therefore are more likely to be transmitted by the media
Churnalism
The idea that most news journalism is second hand. According to Davies journalists don’t have much time & simply reproduce second hand information that is fed to them by the government and PR agencies.
PR
Stands for ‘public relations’. This industry deals with the professional maintenance of a favourable public image by a company or other organization or a famous person
Flat earth news
News with very little or no evidence to support its existence, often sensationalist/exaggerated
Representation
Describes the ways in which the media show the audience a version of the world. These are shaped, selected and edited to influence audience perceptions and are often highly distorted and biased