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A-Level Psychology > C2 - Research Methods - AO1 Key Terms > Flashcards

C2 - Research Methods - AO1 Key Terms Flashcards

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1
Q

debrief

A

Informing the participants of the true nature of the study and restore them to the same state they were in at the start of the study.

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2
Q

ethical issues

A

Concerns questions of right and wrong

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3
Q

valid consent

A

Participants must be given comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it.

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4
Q

confidentiality

A

Keeping personal information about people protected.

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5
Q

deception

A

A participant is not told the true aims of the study and cannot give valid consent

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6
Q

privacy

A

A person’s right to control the flow of information about themselves

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7
Q

risk of harm

A

During a study, participants should not experience negative physical or psychological effects beyond what would be normal for them to experience.

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8
Q

ethical guidelines

A

A set of principles designed to help professionals behave honestly and with integrity

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9
Q

ethics committees

A

A group of people within a research institution that must approve a study before it begins

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10
Q

presumptive consent

A

Asking a group of people who are similar to the research participants whether they would agree to take part in a study and assuming if they consent so would the actual participants

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11
Q

right to withdraw

A

Participants can stop participating in a study if they are uncomfortable in any way.

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12
Q

aims

A

A statement of what the researcher intends to find out in a study

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13
Q

confounding variables

A

Any variable that is not the IV that varies alongside the IV confusing the outcome of the DV.

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14
Q

hypothesis

A

A precise and testable statement about the assumed relationship between variables

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15
Q

dependent variable

A

The variable measured by the experimenter

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16
Q

independent variable

A

The variable measured by the experimenter

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17
Q

operationalise

A

Ensuring that variables are in a form that can be easily tested

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18
Q

alternative hypothesis

A

Any hypothesis that is not the null hypothesis

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19
Q

directional hypothesis

A

States the direction of the predicted difference between two conditions or groups of participants

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20
Q

experimental hypothesis

A

Another name for the alternative hypothesis

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21
Q

extraneous variables

A

These are nuisance variables that make it difficult to detect an effect on the IV, e.g. time of day.

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22
Q

non-directional hypothesis

A

Predicts there is a difference between two conditions or groups of participants without stating the direction of the difference.

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23
Q

null hypothesis

A

The assumption of no relationship/difference/association between variables being studied.

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24
Q

experiment

A

A research method where causal conclusions can be drawn because an independent variable has been deliberately manipulated to observe the causal effect on the dependent variable.

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25
Q

standardised procedures

A

A set of procedures that are the same for all participants in order to be able to repeat the study.

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26
Q

confederate

A

An individual in a study who is not a real participant and has been instructed how to behave by the investigator

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27
Q

pilot study

A

A small-scale trial of a study to test aspects of the design.

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28
Q

counterbalancing

A

An experimental technique used to overcome order effects when using a repeated measures design. Half the participants do condition A followed by condition B, while the other half do condition B followed by condition A.

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29
Q

experimental design

A

A set of procedures used to control the influence of factors such as participant variables in an experiment

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30
Q

independent groups design

A

Participants are randomly allocated to two (or more) groups representing different levels of the IV

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31
Q

matched pairs design

A

Pairs of participants are matched in terms of key variables such as age or IQ. One pair is allocated to one condition and the other to the other condition of the experiment.

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32
Q

order effect

A

In a repeated measures design, an extraneous variable arising from the order in which conditions are presented (tiredness, boredom etc)

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33
Q

repeated measures design

A

Each participant takes part in all of the conditions of the experiment.

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34
Q

laboratory

A

An environment that can be controlled by the researcher to ensure the IV causes the DV.

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35
Q

online

A

Refers to being connected via the internet to an website or an app on a mobile phone.

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36
Q

the field

A

Working with participants in an environment that is familiar to them.

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37
Q

quasi-experiments

A

‘almost’ a study – a research method where the experimenter has not manipulated the IV directly (e.g. the speeds at which different genders drive)

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38
Q

demand characteristics

A

A cue that makes participants unconsciously aware of the aims of a study or helps participants work out what the researcher expects to find.

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39
Q

researcher bias

A

Anything that a researcher does that has an effect on a participants’ performance in a study.

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40
Q

behavioural categories

A

Dividing a target behaviour (such as stress) into a subset of specific and operationalised behaviours

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41
Q

covert observation

A

When a participant is unaware of being observed.

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42
Q

event sampling

A

A technique in which a count is kept of the number of times a certain behaviour occurs

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43
Q

inter-observer reliability

A

The extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers

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44
Q

non-participant observation

A

The observer is separate from the people being observed

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45
Q

participant observation

A

Observations made by someone who is also participating in the activity being observed.

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46
Q

social desirability bias

A

A distortion in the way people answer questions

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47
Q

time sampling

A

A technique in which the observer records behaviours in a given time frame, e.g. every 30 seconds.

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48
Q

closed questions

A

Questions that have a predetermined range of answers from which respondents select one

49
Q

open questions

A

Questions that invite respondents to provide their own answers.

50
Q

qualitative data

A

Non-numerical data

51
Q

quantitative data

A

Numerical data

52
Q

semi-structured interview

A

The interviewer starts with some questions and lets the respondent’s answers guide subsequent questions

53
Q

structured interview

A

Any interview in which questions are decided in advance without deviation.

54
Q

correlation coeffecient

A

A number between -1 and +1 that tells us how closely the co-variables in a correlation are associated.

55
Q

scatter diagram

A

A graphical representation of the association between two sets of scores.

56
Q

case study

A

A research investigation that involves a detailed study of a single individual, institution or event.

57
Q

content analysis

A

A kind of observational study in which behaviour is observed indirectly in written or verbal material.

58
Q

brain scans

A

A technique used to investigate the functioning of the brain by taking images of the living brain

59
Q

cross-sectional study

A

One group of participants representing one section of society (e.g. working class people) are compared with participants from another group (e.g. middle class people)

60
Q

longitudinal study

A

A study conducted over a long period of time.

61
Q

primary data

A

Information observed or collected directly from first-hand experience

62
Q

secondary data

A

Information used in a research study that was collected by someone else or for a purpose other than the current one.

63
Q

opportunity sampling

A

A sample of participants who were available at the time the research was conducted.

64
Q

quota sampling

A

Similar to stratified sample except they are not randomly selected from their subgroup.

65
Q

random sampling

A

A sample of participants produced by using a technique with which all members of the target population has an equal chance of being chosen.

66
Q

sampling frame

A

The source material from which a sample is chosen

67
Q

self-selected sampling

A

People volunteer to take part in the research

68
Q

snowball sampling

A

Relies on referrals from initial participants to generate additional participants

69
Q

stratified sampling

A

A sample of participants produced by identifying subgroups according to their frequency in the population who are randomly selected from their subgroup.

70
Q

systematic sampling

A

A sample obtained by selecting every nth person

71
Q

target population

A

The group of people the researcher is interested in where the sample is chosen from.

72
Q

event sampling

A

An observational technique in which a count is kept of the number of times a certain behaviour occurs

73
Q

time sampling

A

An observational technique in which the observer records behaviours in a given time frame, e.g. every 30 seconds.

74
Q

inter-observer/rater reliability

A

The extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers

75
Q

social desirability bias

A

A distortion in the way people answer questions

76
Q

concurrent validity

A

A means of establishing external validity by comparing an existing test with the one you are interested in.

77
Q

construct validity

A

Demonstrates the extent to which performance on the test measures an identified behaviour – (Does a stress test measure stress?)

78
Q

external reliability

A

The extent to which a measure varies from one occasion to another. (Does a test have the same results when taken again later?)

79
Q

face validity

A

A form of external validity – the extent to which a test looks like it is measuring what it is meant to measure.

80
Q

internal reliability

A

A measure of the extent to which something is consistent within itself.

81
Q

predictive validity

A

Correlating the results of a test with some other example of the behaviour that is being tested.

82
Q

reliability

A

How consistent something is.

83
Q

external validity

A

The degree to which a research finding can be generalised

84
Q

ecological validity

A

The degree to which a research finding can be generalised to other settings

85
Q

population validity

A

The degree to which a research finding can be generalised to other groups of people

86
Q

temporal (Historical) validity

A

The degree to which a research finding can be generalised over time

87
Q

internal validity

A

The extent to which an observed effect was due to the manipulation of the IV (Does it test what it is supposed to test?)

88
Q

validity

A

How accurate a test is.

89
Q

split-half reliability

A

A way to assess internal reliability. Comparing both halves of a test to check how similar the results are

90
Q

test-retest reliability

A

A way to assess external reliability. Giving a test to a group of participants and then giving them the same test at another point and comparing the results to see how similar they are.

91
Q

demand characteristics

A

A cue that makes participants unconsciously aware of the aims of a study or helps participants work out what the researcher expects to find.

92
Q

researcher bias

A

Anything that a researcher does that has an effect on a participants’ performance in a study.

93
Q

nominal

A

Data are in separate categories, such as grouping people according to their favourite colour, gender, age etc

94
Q

ordinal

A

Data are ordered in some way, for example rating chocolate bars by preference (1st, 2nd, 3rd etc)

95
Q

interval

A

Data are measured using units of equal intervals, such as cm.

96
Q

ratio

A

There is a true zero point.

97
Q

mean

A

The arithmetic average of a data set which adds up all data items and divides by the total number of items

98
Q

measure of central tendency

A

A descriptive statistic that provides information about the ‘averages’

99
Q

measure of dispersion

A

A descriptive statistic that provides information about how spread out a set of data are.

100
Q

medan

A

The middle value of a data set when the items are placed in rank order.

101
Q

mode

A

The most frequently occurring value or item in a data set

102
Q

range

A

The difference between the highest and lowest item in a data set.

103
Q

standard deviation

A

Shows the amount of variation in a data set. It assesses the spread of data around the mean.

104
Q

bar chart

A

A graph used to represent the frequency of data, the categories on the x-axis have no fixed order and there are spaces between the bars

105
Q

histogram

A

Type of frequency distribution in which the number of scores in each category of continuous data are represented by vertical columns with no spaces between the bars

106
Q

negative skewed distribution

A

Most of the scores are bunched towards the right. The mode is to the right of the mean because the mean is affected by the extreme scores tailing off to the left.

107
Q

normal distribution

A

A symmetrical bell-shaped frequency distribution. This distribution occurs when certain variables are measured, such as IQ, where most of the scores are close to the midpoint and the mean, mode and median are at the midpoint.

108
Q

pie-chart

A

A circular graph divided into sections or ‘slices’ each representing a proportion of the total.

109
Q

positive skewed distribution

A

Most of the scores are bunched towards the left. The mode is to the left of the mean because the mean is affected by the extreme scores tailing off to the right

110
Q

line graph

A

Like a histogram, but instead of bars a dot is used to mark the top of each bar and each dot is connected by a line.

111
Q

peer review

A

The practice of using independent experts to assess the quality of scientific research and academic reports.

112
Q

observed (calculated) value

A

The number (value) produced after applying an inferential test formula

113
Q

critical value

A

In an inferential test the value of the test statistic that must be reached to show significance and for the null hypothesis to be rejected.

114
Q

Spearman’s rank order test

A

Used when the hypothesis predicts a correlation, between related data (from the same person) with at least ordinal data.

115
Q

Chi-squared test

A

Used when the hypothesis predicts a difference from independent data with nominal data

116
Q

Sign test

A

Used when the hypothesis predicts a difference from related data (matched pairs or repeated measures) with nominal data

117
Q

Wilcoxon matched pairs signed ranks test

A

Used when the hypothesis predicts a difference from related data (matched pairs or repeated measures) with at least ordinal data.

118
Q

Mann-Whitney U test

A

Used when the hypothesis predicts a difference from independent data with at least ordinal data

119
Q

probability values

A

In general, psychologists use a level of 95%, which means there is a 5% likelihood that results are due to chance and not that the IV caused the DV (for example)

A-Level Psychology (9 decks)

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