C1 - BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES Flashcards
monomers and polymers carbohydrates polysaccharides lipids proteins enzymes water ions
explain how biological molecules are evidence for evolution
all cells are made from bio molecules, ex - amino acids, which is indirect evidence for the theory ev
all organisms on earth have descended from one-a few common ancestors BECAUSE all organisms share some similar biochem
biochem = same nucleic acids, ex - DNA/RNA
despite sharing some same biochem, they have diversified over time due to EVOLUTION
what are monomers
small and basic units
many of them bonded form polymers
examples of monomers
amino acids
monosaccharides
nucleotides
what are polymers
large and complex molecules that are made of many (more than 2) monomers
examples of polymers
proteins
carbohydrates
nucleic acids (DNA/RNA)
monomers -> polymers
condensation reaction
loss of water molecule
creation of a chemical bond
polymers -> monomers
hydrolysis reaction
use of a water molecule to break down polymer into its constituent monomers
chemical bond is broken
what are sugars
‘carbohydrates’
sugar is the general term for monosaccharides and disaccharides
all carbohydrates are made of only C, H and O
what is the monomer of sugars/carbs
monosaccharides
examples of monosaccharides
glucose
fructose
galactose
what is glucose
monosaccharide
hexose sugar, 6 carbon atoms
2 isomers - alpha+beta glucose
what is the difference between alpha and beta glucose
the hydrogen and hydroxyl group are inverted on the carbon 1 atom of BETA glucose
what are dissacharides
molecules made of 2 monosaccharides
condensation reaction between 2 monosaccharides + the formation of a GLYCOSIDIC bond
formation involves the loss of a water molecules because it is a CONDENSATION reaction
examples of dissacharides
maltose = glucose+glucose (alpha)
sucrose = glucose+fructose
lactose = glucose+galactose
describe the benedicts test for REDUCING sugars
heat sample WITH benedicts reagent (heat by adding to a boiling water bath)
positive result = sample forms a brick red, orange, yellow or green precipitate
negative result = sample stays blue
what does a negative result on the benedicts test for REDUCING sugars mean
no reducing sugars
non reducing sugars may be present
how do you measure the concentration of reducing sugars
the higher the concentration of reducing sugar, the further the colour change AND the closer it is to brick red, the higher the conc of reducing sugar
filter the solution and weigh the precipitate
remove the precipitate and use a colorimeter to measure the absorbance of benedicts remaining
describe the benedicts test for NON REDUCING sugars
heat a new sample with HYDROCHLORIC ACID and then neutralise this with SODIUM HYDROGENCARBONATE
heat this sample WITH benedicts reagent
positive result = sample forms a brick red, orange, yellow or green precipitate
negative result = sample stays blue, no reducing or non reducing sugars present in sample
what are polysaccharides
carbohydrates (sugars)
made of more than 2 monosaccharides joined
monosaccharides -> polysaccharide via condensation reaction
polysaccharide -> monosaccharide via hydrolysis reaction
what is the chemical bond formed for polysaccharides
glycosidic
give an example of a polysaccharide and its monomers
amylose - poly
alpha glucose/ glucose molecules - mono
name the 3 main polysaccharides
starch
glycogen
cellulose
describe the function of starch
how plants store excess glucose
describe starch
alpha glucose
in PLANTS
made of amylose and amylopectin
describe amylose
long unbranched chains of alpha glucose
helical/cylindrical structure due to angles of glycosidic bonds
very compact and therefore its a good molecule for storage as you can fit a lot into a small space
describe amylopectin
long branched chains of alpha glucose
loads of side branches allow for easier access for enzymes, to hydrolyse the glycosidic bonds which would release energy
allows for a quick release of energy/glucose
name the features of starch that help its function
amylose is a cylindrical/compact molecule, which makes it good for storage as you can fit more into a small space
amylopectin is highly unbranched which allows for enzymes to have easier access to the glycosidic bonds and hydrolyse them for a QUICKER release of glucose
starch is insoluble in water, therefore water cant enter the cells via osmosis and cause them to swell
starch is a large molecule and can’t leave the cell
describe glycogen and its function
how ANIMALS store excess glucose/ acts as an energy store
alpha glucose
name the features of glycogen that help its function
extremely branched, allows for a quick release of stored glucose as enzymes have easier access to hydrolysing the glycosidic bonds
very compact molecule, so its good for storage
describe cellulose and its function
used for structural support, ex in the cell walls of plants
beta glucose
beta glucose molecules form straight cellulose chains, these are joined by (weak) hydrogen bonds which form MICROFIBRILS (strong fibres)
name the features of cellulose that help its function
cellulose is made of strong fibres/ microfibrils which provide structural support for cells, ex - in plant cell walls
describe the iodine test for STARCH and how to identify a positive and negative result
add iodine dissolved in potassium iodide to the test sample
+ result = blue black colour, starch = present in test sample
- result = browny orange colour, starch = not present in test sample
the colour change from browny orange to blue black is for a POSITIVE result only
describe lipids
fats/oils
found in all cells
they aren’t polymers as they aren’t made of monomers, they are made of LONG CHAINS OF HYDROCARBONS
ex, hormone testosterone = lipid
2 types of lipids = triglycerides and phospholipids
describe the structure of triglycerides
one molecule of glycerol and 3 fatty acids
chemical bond = ester bond
describe the structure of phospholipids
one phosphate group, one molecule of glycerol, 2 fatty acids
phosphate group = hydrophilic
chemical bond = ester bond
describe fatty acids
have long hydrocarbons tails which cause lipids to be insoluble in water BECAUSE the tails are hydrophobic
structure = RCOOH
R = variable group
COOH = carboxyl/ carboxylic acid
can be saturated or unsaturated
saturated vs unsaturated acids
saturated = no double bond between the carbon atoms
‘saturated’ with hydrogen
unsaturated = double bond/s between carbon atoms
causes the chain to kink
what are properties of triglycerides
ENERGY STORAGE
hydrocarbon tails of fatty acids contain lots of chemical energy
a large amount of energy released when broken down
because of the fatty acid tails, lipids have 2x energy per gram compared to carbohydrates
INSOLUBLE IN WATER
no effect of the water potential of the cell
if there was an effect on cell WP, then water could enter the cell via osmosis and cause the cell to swell
INSOLUBLE IN WATER
triglycerides bundle together as insoluble droplets because fatty acid tails are hydrophobic, therefore the tails face inwards to shield themselves from water
what are the properties of phospholipids
CELL MEMBRANES
form the phospholipid bilayer
function - control what enters and leaves the cell
phospholipid head = hydrophilic
phospholipid tails = hydrophobic
causes the formation of a double layer and also causes the centre of the bilayer to be hydrophobic and water soluble substances cant easily pass AND the membrane acts as a barrier
describe emulsion test and how to identify a POSITIVE and NEGATIVE result
shake the test substance with ethanol for a minute
pour into water
+ result = milky emulsion and more milky = more lipids present
- result = NO milky emulsion
what if the test sample if food for an emulsion test
dissolve the food in ethanol
name a precaution for the emulsion test
ethanol is flammable, therefore do the test away from any open flames
what are proteins
made of 1 or more polypeptide chains
what are the monomers of proteins
amino acids
what is a dipeptide
2 amino acids joined
what is a polypeptide
more than 2 amino acids joined
describe the general structure of amino acids
central carbon is attached to R, COOH and H2N
R - variable group
COOH - carboxyl group/ carboxylic acid
H2N - amino group/amine
how many total amino acids are there
total of 20 amino acids amongst all living things, differ through their R/variable group
describe the formation of dipeptides and polypeptides
for dipeptides, amino acid+amino acid = dipeptide
join together via a condensation reaction, involving the loss of a water molecule and the formation of a peptide bond
describe the condensation reaction between 2 amino acids to form a dipeptide
the hydroxide from the carboxyl group from one amino acid AND the hydrogen from the amine, is released to release a water of molecule
describe how the dipeptide would look like after a condensation reaction, showing the peptide bond
central carbon bonded to a double bond O, on top as the hydroxide from the amino acid was lost through condensation
H on top of N in the second amino acid, as one of the hydrogen atoms was lost in the condensation reaction
peptide bond represented by the line between the C double bonded to the O, from the first amino acid, to the N in the second amino acid
what are the 4 levels in the structure of protein
primary
secondary
tertiary
quaternary
describe the primary structure of a protein
the sequence/order of amino acids in the polypeptide chain
describe the secondary structure of a protein
hydrogen bonds form between the amino acids in the polypeptide chain
the PP chain either coils into an alpha helix or folds into a beta pleated sheet
describe the tertiary structure of a protein
further coiling or folding
hydrogen and ionic bonds and disulfide bridges form
final 3D structure of a protein only made of 1 PP chain
how do disulfide bridges form
when 2 molecules of the amino acid ‘cysteine’ come close together, the sulfur atom in one molecule of cysteine and the sulfur atom in the other molecule of cysteine
D bridge is between 2 sulfur atoms
SULFur = diSULFide
describe the quartnery structure of a protein
how multiple, more than 1, PP chains are assembled
held together by different bonds
final 3D structure for proteins made of more than 1 PP chain
ex, insulin, collagen and haemoglobin
describe the relationship between the shape of the protein and its function
the shape of a protein determines its function
how is the relationship between shape and function demonstrated by HAEMOGLOBIN
shape - compact + soluble
function - good for carrying oxygen around the body
how is the relationship between shape and function demonstrated by ENZYMES
shape - spherical shape as the PP chains are tightly folded + soluble
have roles in metabolism, ex - digestive enzymes break down large molecules (soluble)
some enzymes help in the synthesis of large molecules
how is the relationship between shape and function demonstrated by ANTIBODIES
shape - made of 2 light (short) and 2 heavy (long) PP chains bonded + have variable regions where the amino acid sequences vary greatly
function - found in the blood and involved in the immune response
how is the relationship between shape and function demonstrated by TRANSPORT PROTEINS
shape - contain hydrophobic and hydrophilic amino acids which causes the protein to fold up and form a channel
function - to transport molecules and ions across the membrane + found in the cell membranes
how is the relationship between shape and function demonstrated by STRUCTURAL PROTEINS
shape - long PP chains lying parallel to eachother with cross links between them + physically strong
function - ex, in collagen (protein found in connective tissue) there are 3 PP chains tightly coiled together which causes the so be strong and allows them to be great supportive tissue
describe the process of a biuret test for proteins
add a few drops of sodium hydroxide - ensures the test sample is alkaline
add copper (||) sulfate solution
how do you identify a positive result in a biuret test
if the solution turns purple
how do you identify a negative result in a biuret test
if the solution stays blue
what are enzymes
proteins
describe the function of enzymes
act as biological catalysts to speed up chemical reactions