British INDIA 2 Flashcards
Indian Rebellion 1857
+ Peasant revolts before the mutiny. Kohl uprising 1831, the Santhal uprising 1855, the kutch rebellion 1816 – 1812 Vellore mutiny 1806 : investigated by the sons of the defeated Tipu Sultan.
+
1857 was different due to
Modernisation, roads schools, railway, telegraph. Largest railway system in Asia during the 19th century.
Fear of forced conversion
Unfair taxation and land management
Britain was busy in military campaigns somewhere else (against Russia in the Crimea 1853, 1856
Britain and the EIC, at war against PERSIA 1856,57
Trouble in China, second Opium war
Britain and the East India Company were at war against Persia.
Random facts
Roger Fenton first war photographer
The writer karl MAX wrote that it wasn’t a mutiny but the first war of indian independence.
What’s a mutiny? an open rebellion against the proper authorities, especially by soldiers or sailors against their officers. /refuse to obey
British sovereignty in India.
“the last days of the Raj”
Indian
rule; government.
noun: RAJ
“they alleged that a ‘goonda raj’ had been set up in the state”
- Mahad mughandi, Political team in South Africa not India.
All barristers belong to a Inn of Court. There were 4 in London. Each Barrister is under the administration of a body of benchers, judges and senior barristers. The mission of the Inn is to protect its members, educate them and be responsible for them “govern”
The Enfield RIFFLE
Indian troops used. Paper cartridge.
85 men court martialed refusing to use the new cartridges (see BRITISH INDIA)
The rumor was that they were composed of pig and cow fat, and they had to use their mouths to use the cartridges.
May 10th 1857 mutiny started in
Meerut, NEAR DELHi, JHANSI, AWADH, CALCUTTA. small revolts, NOT THE WHOLE COUNTRY.
MUHAMMAH BAHADU SHAB. quite old, however, saying that it was the responsibility of every Indian and Muslim to revolt against the British.
IN Cawnpore; NANASAHIB LED THE REVOLT. Earlier the British and EIC had cut his allowance and refused to recognize him.
Lucknow: Led by female begum of AWADH, the young son proclaimed by her Nawab.
It took 18 months to put it down entirely. A century later rebel leaders became folk heroes in the nationalist movement.
END OF THE MUTINY/EAST INDIA COMPANY.
No leadership, contradictions
No sense of purpose.
No ideology, little support from the peasants that the EIC terrorized.
Inertia: to do nothing, something that stays the same, unactive. Unaction.
Victory of the British, the British Crown would now take control.
Massacre at Cawnpore
involved the forces of the East India Company and Indian rebels led by Nana Sahib
The British forces, including civilians, were promised safe passage by the rebels but were ambushed during their evacuation. Many were killed,
The capture of Delhi 1857
The rebellion began when Indian soldiers (sepoys) in Meerut mutinied and marched to Delhi, where they were joined by other rebels2.
The British, after assembling a significant force, managed to breach the city’s defenses and recapture Delhi after intense street-to-street fighting2.
Victorian England reaction :
(To the rebellion)
- newspaper titles w horror stories,
- the Brit’s felt betrayed about this, they had a civilization mission and their belief in ultimate progress.
- British Empire was a source of national pride in V.E.
- Deep-seated prejudices were confirmed.
Result of the “mutiny”?
Dissolution of the EAST INDIA COMPANY 1858
Henceforward/forth. :
How was politics?
A SECRETARY OF STATE AND PARLIAMENT: Responsible for the government of India.
Local law policy making: VICEROY (2nd most powerful person) provincial governor generals. That were asisted by councils and lots of indian princess.
1st JAN 1877. Queen Victoria. Proclaimed Empress of India at a /Durbar/
(Assembly of notables and princess in Delhi)
THE QUEEN NEVER set foot in India.
However, There was an Indian at her palace, which started teaching her Urdu.
The British Raj.
¡1858 - 1947! Important
This period began after the Indian Rebellion of 1857, when the British government took direct control from the East India Company. The Raj ended with the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947.
Brits displaying more outward self-confidence after the shock of the Mutiny – more ceremonies, for example.
Yet status quo was the rule – no one wanted to rock the boat: only Viceroys Ripon and Curzon tried to implement reforms.
The Indian National Congress
It was founded on December 28, 1885, by a group of Indian and British members, including A.O. Hume, Dadabhai Naoroji, and W.C. Bonnerjee
The INC played a crucial role in the Indian independence movement against British rule, especially under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, who advocated for nonviolent civil disobedience
First meeting held in Bombay
Nehru, Jammu and Kashmir
Non-alignement movement: Nehru displayed a clear favoritism toward Russia rather than America, and once in power he began to implement a socialist economic agenda.
He banned on foreign investments in India, restricted access to foreign manufactured goods.
In social policy, Nehru did much to improve the lot of women and outcastes.
Although a /socialist communist himself, Nehru banned the democratically elected communist government in the state of Kerala in the late 1950s.
Pakistan’s short, turbulent history
Alternating periods of marital law and civilian government. Ayub Khan signed a security agreement with Eisenhower in case of communist aggression.
Bhutto preparing his rise to power, created the Pakistan People’s Party in 1966. Still standing today.
Tensions between East and West Pakistan, the Awami League under Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.
Same tensions today.
Indira Ghandi IMPORTANT
Nehru’s daughter, fourth woman President of Congress, socialist leanings like her father, she nationalized many banks and insurance companies in 1969.
Entered Soviet “Peace and Friendship” Pact, largely driven by America’s support for Pakistan and Nixon’s visit to China.
Indira Gandhi backed East Pakistan in the 1971 Civil War, thus accelerating the creation of Bangladesh.
In hope to get the territory back’, however it led to the creation of Bangladesh
Didn’t care for others. But took care of her family with public money, corruption.
Killed in 1984 own bodyguards killed her, because she ordered an attack thé the Golden Temple.
Continued socialist policies and corruption led to economic crises, food riots, inflation.
25 June 1975, state of emergency, till March 1977 when Indira (and Congress) lost elections.
Playing Sikh parties off one another, she allowed Punjab to descend into chaos, (as a distraction, to not confront the people)becthen launched Operation Blue Star against the Golden Temple in 1984. A serious miscalculation which cost her her life.
East Pakistan becomes Bangladesh (state of emergency)
Elections in December 1970 gave the majority to Rahman’s Awami League in East Pakistan; Bhutto stalled, and in March 1971 Operation Searchlight was launched.
They attacked after the cyclone killed as many people as possible
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto would take over as Prime Minister, in a speech to the UN in December he promised “a thousand years of war” with India. To this day, India remains enemy No. 1.
Even though Pakistan was created for Muslims it came apart anyway, east and west.
Z. A. Bhutto and General Zia ul-Haq
Bhutto a skilled populist: “bread, clothes, shelter,” but who sought to align socialism with Islam. Over time, he alienated everyone: in the ensuing unrest, Bhutto asked COAS General Zia ul-Haq to impose martial law.
Shortly thereafter, Zia launched Operation Fair Play, a coup d’état which removed Bhutto (Zia would have him executed in 1979).
General Zia ul-Haq
Kept Bhutto in prison for 2 years then executed him.
The Russians had invaded Afghanistan and he became rich
Radicalization of Islam in all spheres of life; Shariah Law, Hudood Ordinances, madrassas, Army control.
Fortunately for Zia, in 1979 the Soviets invaded Afghanistan, and Pakistan became a strategically important ally, receiving huge amounts of American military aid.
August 1988, Zia killed when his plane crashed, killing many top generals and US Ambassador Arnold Raphael as well.
Bangladesh in the aftermath
Mujib Rahman Prime Minister, established a socialist dictatorship which alienated everyone and did nothing to alleviate poverty.
August 1975, Mujib killed in a coup; continuing violence in the power vacuum. In 1978 General Zaiur Rahman declared himself president.
Early 1990s, Begum Zia began to turn things around by liberalizing the economy.
Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif
Not as important
After her father’s death, Benazir took charge of the Pakistan People’s Party (PPP).
Twice Prime Minister, 1988 and 1993, and assassinated in 2007.
Sharif Prime Minister in 1990, 1997 and 2013; was a major player in Pakistani politics, as head of a branch of the Muslim League. Now disqualified for corruption.
Overthrown by Musharraf in 1999, who, although a military dictator, was largely welcomed by the people in hopes of eliminating corruption.
Fatima Bhutto blâmes Banazir Bhutto for having her brother? Killed, he was supposed to be the one in power
India
Still very pro-market, but factional strife is a problem. BJP versus Congress, the caste system…
Rajiv Gandhi’s wife Sonia in power after his death, she had the wherewithal to step back and allow Manmohan Singh to take charge.
New heights of growth and prosperity, but questions remain regarding poverty, energy and the environment.
A Hindu nationalist (BJP)
is now in charge.
Pakistan
Zardari (Mister Ten Percent) finished
his term as President, then lost to
Nawaz Sharif (PML) in 2013.
Extremely tense relations with the USA after the raid by US Navy commandos to kill Bin Laden, then an attack by NATO forces (by mistake) on a Pakistani border post, killing 24 Pakistani soldiers, the continuing use of drones, blockage of NATO supply lines, the list goes on…
Imrân Khan, most influential political person, in prison, former cricket player that won the cup, that’s why he was president. Even in prison, keeps influencing others.
Bangladesh
Prime Minister Khaleda Zia resigned after 3 terms in 2006, chaos ensued.
Two warring women, Zia and Sheikh Hasina, have been struggling for power, and most observers see this lack of mutual respect and civility between government
and opposition as a major
political problem.
Review SHOW WHAT YOU KNOW
INDIAN MUTINYY.
THE BRITISH RAJJ
THE BABUS
562 PRINCELY STATES
DIVISION OF PUNJAB AND west Pakistan
Ghandi, Nehru
Indian ACTS
Law and order, Reginald Edward committed this. Rewarded for it
Salt march
Muslim league
The Cripps mission
The partition of India
… /todays class/
Crisis Management
Especially agricultural reform.
Famine was common, and 70% of the population was dependent on farming, especially at the subsistence level.
When Florence Nightingale visited in 1863, she reported serious health and sanitation problems within the Indian Army.
Support for cotton and jute industries.
The Babus
the English-educated Bengali intelligentsia
was a term used to describe a native Indian clerk.
The word was originally used as a term of respect attached to a proper name, the equivalent of “mister”, was used in many parts to mean “sir”;
but when used alone without the suffix, it was a derogatory word signifying a semi-literate native, with a mere veneer of modern education.
In the early 20th century the term babu was frequently used to refer to bureaucrats and other government officials, especially by the Indian media; in this sense the word hints at corrupt or lazy work practices.
It can also mean the pimp or client of a sex worker. The term babu has thus fallen out of favor in polite society, since it may be taken as an insult.
562 Indian states were ruled by princes during the period of British control. They occupied 45% of the total area of British India and had a population of over 93 million
Most of the states were Hindu, and their rulers mainly Rajputs. But It would have been impossible to draw an exact racial or religious chart of India, although, as a general rule, Muslims were concentrated in the north-western regions and Bengal. They were a minority comprising a seventh of a population which stood at 280 million in 1940 (40 million).
The Montagu-Chelmsford reforms
The reforms take their name from Edwin Samuel Montagu, the Secretary of State for India during the latter parts of World War I and Lord Chelmsford, Viceroy of India between 1916 and 1921.
introduced by the British Government in India to introduce self-governing institutions gradually to India. The reforms were outlined in the Montagu-Chelmsford Report prepared in 1918 and formed the basis of the Government of India Act of 1919.
The Government of India Act 1919
was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It was passed to expand participation of the natives in the government of India. The Act embodied the reforms recommended in the report of the Secretary of State for India, Edwin Montagu, and the Viceroy, Lord Chelmsford. The Act covered ten years, from 1919 to 1929.
The Act provided a dual form of government
(a “dyarchy“) for the major provinces. In each such province, control of some areas of government, the “transferred list”, were given to a Government of ministers answerable to the Provincial Council.
The ‘transferred list’ included:
Agriculture,
Health and Education.
The Provincial Councils were enlarged.
At the same time, all other areas of government (the ‘reserved list’) remained under the control of the Viceroy. The ‘reserved list’ included:
Defense
Foreign Affairs
Communications.
India Act 1919 also provided for a High Commissioner who resided in London, representing India in Great Britain.
REACTIONS to the Government of India Act 1919
The Indian National Congress was unhappy at these reforms and termed them as ‘disappointing.’
A special session was held in Mumbai and the reforms were condemned.
However, leaders such as Surendranath Banerjea were inclined to accept the reforms, so they left the Congress and formed the Indian Liberal Federation, which played a minor role in subsequent affairs.
While Indian nationalists considered that the reforms did not go far enough the British conservatives were critical of them.
The Rowlatt Act
a law passed by the British in colonial India in March 1919, indefinitely extending “emergency measures” (of the Defense of India Regulations Act) enacted during the First World War in order to control public unrest and root out conspiracy.
This act effectively authorized the government to imprison for a maximum period of two years, without trial, any person suspected of terrorism living in the Raj. The Rowlatt Act gave British imperial authorities power to deal with revolutionary activities.
Sidney Arthur Taylor Rowlatt (1862 - 1945) was an English lawyer and judge, best remembered for his controversial presidency of the Rowlatt committee, a sedition committee appointed in 1918 by the British Indian Government to evaluate the links between political terrorism in India, especially Bengal and Punjab, and the German government and the Bolsheviks in Russia. The result was the Rowlatt Act, an extension of the Defence of India Act of 1915.
Hartal
this was a traditional public demonstration of mourning or disapproval during which all shops, businesses and schools were closed and public transport halted, leaving large numbers free to take to the streets and form processions. (Parade, march)
Amritsar Massacre
The Indian people gathered in Amritsar to peacefully protest against the repressive Rowlatt act were fired on under the command of brigadier general Redignald Edward Harry dyer.
The killing of 379 Indians (and wounding of 1,200) in Amritsar, at the site of a Sikh religious shrine in the Punjab 1919
He was recompensed with 26 thousand pounds sterling in Britain from a collection on his behalf by the Morning Post a conservative news paper
The Morning Post had supported Dyer’s action on grounds stating that the massacre was necessary to “Protect the honour of European Women.”
SATYAGRAHA
‘soul force’ or ‘love force’.
Satyagraha was a spiritual state achieved by a
man or woman which gave them the inner
fortitude, patience and faith in God that were
needed for passive resistance against an immoral
authority.
The suffering endured would serve as a measure of his own integrity and that of his cause.
Gandhi
Gandhi worked to dissolve both religious and class boundaries. His time in South Africa also exposed him to direct racial prejudice.
As early as 1920, Gandhi was calling for non-cooperation with the British, much to Jinnah’s disgust. When violence was the result, Gandhi used fasting as a political tool.
Became allies with Nehru, who were both arrested for the Salt Marches, which caught attention worldwide.
The 1935 Government of India Act
created an Indian federation embracing the British-ruled provinces and the princely states in which careful provision was made for the representation of the non-Hindu minorities.
Congress accepted, grudgingly, the 1935 Act, but only as a milestone on a road which led to unconditional swaraj in the near future.
Indeed, independence seemed to be guaranteed.
The Muslim League
1906 under the leadership of the Aga Khan, the leader of the Ismaili, a Shiite sect of Muslims.
1938 the leader of the Muslim League was Muhammad Ali Jinnah. The League had become the focus for Muslim aspirations and the guardian of their political interests. It may have exaggerated its grass-roots support, but by the end of 1943 the League was claiming to speak for all of India’s Muslims.
Jinnah and Pakistan
In 1917, united Hindus and Muslims in common cause at Lucknow, an accord which remained in place until 1928 when the Muslim League became a separate entity.
1940, Jinnah first proposes a separate State for India’s Muslims, although understandably most were opposed to such a radical solution.
Allied to the USA as a cushion against communism, the US filled the role of the UK in the new “Great Game” in Asia. Although not socialist like India, Pakistan took a long time to implement a democratic Constitution.
THE CRIPPS MISSION
This was aimed at stopping an open revolt in the country at the time the Japanese had reached Burma. Richard Stafford Cripps
(1889 –1952)
Aimed to secure Indian cooperation during WW2, in exchange of self governance after the war.
to some Conservatives the whole point of Cripps mission on the future of India was to convince the rest of the world, particularly the Americans, that Britain had made an offer, even if it proved unacceptable.
Churchill was ready to give the Indian ministers the illusion that they were being treated like a real Cabinet.
The failure of the Cripps mission in April 1942 inevitably moved Congress towards a ‘Quit India’ policy
Migration Pakistan ↔ India
Greatest mass migration in history.
Had been preceded by 12 months of rioting between Hindus and Muslims.
As many as 2 million dead in the violence of Partition itself, and the aftermath.
More than 500 distinct pieces of territory, Patel worked miracles to avoid Balkanization.
Even today, no definitive map of India/Pakistan exists (Kashmir still contested).
Mountbatten and Partition
India’s last governor, owed his position more to family connections and money than competence.
562 Indian States with which to negotiate.
Incredible violence during Partition, the largest mass-movement of peoples in history. Up to two million dead.
Two wings of Pakistan, with 1,000 miles of Indian territory between them.
Nehru, the Indian Congress Party legend
India’s first Prime Minister at Independence, opposed to Partition, as was Gandhi, he believed in the historical nationhood in India.
Invaded Jammu and Kashmir in an attempt to consolidate them with India at Partition.
Declared a non-alignment policy at the 1955 Bandung conference; this led to suspicions by John Foster Dulles, Eisenhower’s Secretary of State, that Nehru was a closet communist.
