Britain, Booklet 1, SLAVE TRADE Flashcards
Capture of slaves :
- Leaders took advantage of…
- Got lured out with…
- Leaders took advantage of parents absences to kidnap children.
- Got lured out with red cloth onto the ship.
The middle passage : Could be more than _______ on each ship, ____._% died on each journey and __.__% died on arrival…
- Slaves lay…
- Closeness meant…
600 slaves, 12.5% on journey, 4.5% on arrival.
- Slaves lay chained to on planks.
- Closeness meant there was lots of disease and a horrible stench.
Auctions :
- Slaves were examined…
- Pent up…
- Washed and…
- Buyers…
- Slaves were examined by merchants and planters.
- Pent up together like sheep.
- Washed and shaved, sometimes oiled to look more healthy.
- Buyers grabbed who they wanted.
Plantations : When slavery ended in the WI a total slave imports of over __ million left a surviving _________. In US, _________ to __ million…
West Indies, 2 million, 670,000.
BUT in US, 500,000 slaves imported over the centuries had grown to almost 4 million (highlights how poor conditions were).
- Alone, separated from families.
- Work was physically and mentally exhausting.
- Stripped of identity, done deliberately to make them passive.
Punishments :
- Cart whipping, breaking of bones, an iron crook around the neck etc.
- One man had his leg chopped off for running away.
Profits :
- Some voyages made ____-____% profit, between 1700-1800
- Liverpool population rose from _________ to ______________.
- Plantation owners : vast…
- Ports : …
- Bankers : Grew…
20-50%. 1700-1800 from 5,000 to 78,000.
- Plantation owners : vast profits could be made by using unpaid workers.
- Ports : Bristol + Liverpool were major ports, fitted out slave ships, handled cargoes etc.
- Bankers : Grew rich from fees and interest they earned from merchants who borrowed money.
The slave trade provided jobs for ordinary people, Birmingham had over __________ gun-makers with _________________ guns a year going to slave-traders…
- Many people worked in…
- Slave labour also made…
4,000 gun-makers, 100,000 gun.
- Many people worked in these factories that sold their goods to West Africa.
- Slave labour also made goods e.g. sugar more affordable for Brits.
(Humanitarian) In the 18th century there was an increasing belief that… e.g. _______________ hospitals.
Foundling hospitals helped the disadvantaged children.
- All humans were fundamentally the same and should be treated equally. Turned some peoples attention to the slave trade.
(Religious Society of Friends)
- Quakers were a … formed in 16_____.
- Had opposed the slave trade since 165___.
- Based on idea that…
Religious group, formed in 1650. Since 1657.
- Based on the idea that God could be found in everyone, so you should not harm anyone.
Quakers, in 17__, distributed ________ of their pamphlet…
- Gave a voice to women who…
- Were well…
1784, 10,000.
- “The case of our fellow creatures…”
- Gave a voice to women who were excluded from politics.
- Were well organised, provided an effective challenge to slavery.
Quakers negatives :
- People were moving away…
- They were ignored by… and were banned…
- They had no one in…
- People were moving away from religion.
- They were ignored by everyone, as they were outsiders from society and were banned from being politicians.
- They had no one in parliament to voice their ideas.
Evangelical Christians believed in…
The strength of repentance as a means of salvation.
- Saw the slave trade as a sinful practice that should be stopped.
Evangelical Christians people :
Granville Sharp, Thomas Clarkson and William Wilberforce (MP).
Granville Sharp, in 17___ a beaten…
1767, beaten slave called Jonathon Strong arrived at his doorstep.
- After helping his health he found Strong work and successfully defended him in court when his master sought to re-enslave him.
The Society for… was founded in 17_____, forced discussion in Parliament in 178_____.
The Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade, in 1787, forced discussion in Parliament in 1788.
(Granville Sharps Sierra Leone project)
- Believed black community should be able to…
- Gov supported this, gave £____ per African towards the…
- Many believed it was just to get…
- In the first ___ months, ______ died due to…
Believed black community should be able to create a land free of slaves.
- Gov supported this, gave £12 per African towards transport costs.
- Many believed it was just to get black people to move out of England.
- In the first 4 months, 122 died due to poor planning which lead to famines/malaria.
The Zong case, 17__, sailed from Africa to ______________ under Captain _________________with _______ slaves, after 3 months more than ____ were already dead, in total _______ thrown overboard…
1783, 440 slaves, from Africa to Jamaica.
- Captain Collingwood.
- After 3 months more than 60 were dead.
- In total 133 thrown overboard.
(The Zong Case) Slaves were insured at…
£30 a head, if slaves died due to ‘perils of the sea’ insurance covered the loss.
- Captain Collingwood.
- Were told to blame it on water running out if they were asked…
(The Zong Case) During trial it was discovered that there were ________ gallons of spare water, so this…
- G____________ S_______ gathered…
- Lord M______________ said it was…
420 gallons, so this was not the reason for the slaves being thrown overboard.
- Granville Sharpe gathered evidence to try and prosecute crew for murder.
- Lord Mansfield said ‘just as if horses were killed’ and that it was not a murder case.
The Society for Effecting… aimed to raise… and apply…
Raise awareness amongst the public and apply political pressure to the Gov by raising petitions and bills in the House of Commons.
(Humanitarian) In 179__, people had signed more than ____ petitions…
1792, 519 petitions that year.
(Humanitarian) In Manchester, a town of _________, in 17___, ________ people had signed an abolition petition…
Town of 50,000, in 1787, 10,700 signed a petition.
(Humanitarian) Abolitionists maintained their relevance, such that an abolition bill was presented every year from 17____-____ by…
- Whilst they were…
1791-99, William Wilberforce (MP for Hull).
- Whilst they were unsuccessful, they reminded everyone of the continued pressure + work of the society.
(Opposition) ___% of Britons income was dependent on the slave trade and it’s associated industries…
- Meaning the societies…
24%.
- Meaning the societies task was very difficult and their opponents were powerful and rich.
(Opposition) West India Lobby (a group of….) whose business depended on the slave trade, by the 17___s, there were approx ____ MP’s closely linked to the WIL… One even became the…
- West Indian Lobby, a group of Sugar Planters.
- 1790’s 50 approx closely linked to the WIL, One becoming the Mayor of London.
The Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Salve Trade extensive educational campaign lasted more than…
20 years.
- Helped spread ideas across the country.
Liverpool was… it claimed __/__ of European trade…
3/7 of European trade.
- The ‘slaving capital’, and the apex of the triangular trade.
- However, it was not a major site for the sale of slaves.
Following the abolition of the slave trade, Liverpool placed itself at the forefront of…
The campaign (which achieved success in 1833) to abolish slavery itself within the British colonies.
Decision was made to concentrate not on slavery but on…
Ending the Atlantic slave trade.
- Because aiming for both would of been near impossible.
Focusing on just ending the Atlantic Slave Trade gave them hope that…
Stopping the import of slaves would simultaneously improve conditions in West Indian slave planters since they would no longer be able to replace slaves they treated poorly with African slaves.
Wedgewood’s famous cameo medallion said…
- Showed the…
- _____________ Wedgewood believed it…
‘Am I not a man and a brother?’.
- Showed the porcelian businesses support in the Abolition.
- Josiah Wedgewood believed it was utterly immoral.
Dolbens Act of 17__…
1788 restricted the number of Africans allowed to be carried on a British slave ship.
- Also stipulated that they should carry a doctor.
- Also, provided incentives to lower death rate among transported Africans.
The number of signatures to abolitionist petitions far outnumbered…
other petitions to parliament for Parliamentary reform.
18__ Emancipationist petition contained more signatures than either petitions for Parliamentary reform in 18__/__…
1833, 1831-32…
- Pretty popular shared belief in public.
- Few doubted the integrity of petitions.
The abolitionist movement was soon renowned for it’s size…
Started to attract a much broader constituency.
- Many public meetings, people often listened to visiting abolitionists speak.
Petitioning campaign was a successful form of…
Exerting popular pressure on the government.
- Helped express extra-parliamentary pressure on a public issue.
It’s been estimated that from 17__-__, petitions against the slave trade were signed by ___.___ million out of the ______ million Britons…
- (Almost ___/____ of the total population).
1787-92, 1.5 million of the 12 million Britons.
- (Almost 1/6 of the total population).
Abolition was popular among…
Young women.
- Who later in the 1820/30’s organized many ladies committees against slavery.
Initial discussions about the nature of the slave trade took place at virtually the same time that the… for ___ years after ___…
- Parliament would have been aware of this, making it…
That the US constitution decided to prohibit slave imports for 21 years after 1787.
- Parliament would of been aware of this, making it clear that these issues could no longer be ignored.
(Significance of economic and financial factors) Infrastructure related to slave trade generated much wealth, there were _____________ slave voyages in the 18th century…
- This meant…
- Also would have to…
35,000 slave voyages in the 18th century.
- This meant shipbuilding and out-fitting businesses grew.
- Also would have to employ military people for these boats.
(GAVE PEOPLE JOBS)
(Significance of economic and financial factors) Slave ports became centres of wealth, in Bristol in the 17__’s, ___% of peoples income…
1780’s, 40% of peoples income was slave based.
(DEVELOPED CITIES DUE TO PORTS)
(Significance of economic + financial factors) Between 180__/__, _____% of Britains textile outputs went….
- Slave traders would fill their…
1805/07, 87% of Britian’s textile outputs went abroad, with African markets taking the majority of this.
- Slave traders would fill their ships with British goods and swap them for African slaves.
(PROVIDED PROFIT, PROMOTED GROWTH OF OTHER INDUSTRIES)
(Significance of economic and financial factors) During the wars with France from 17__ to 18__, British manufacturers had to rely solely on…
1793 to 1815.
- African markets because the ports were blocked in Europe.
(Significance of economic and financial factors) On the C_______________ plantation in Barbados, the _______ acres of land made a profit of £__________ a year with _______ slaves…
Codrington Plantation, 710 acres of land, £2000 a year with 276 slaves.
(PROVIDED PROFIT)
(Significance of economic and financial factors) Liverpool merchant William D_____________, netted ____.__% and ______% profit in just two voyages during the American War of Independence…
William Davenport, 73.5% and 147%
(PEOPLE INVESTED IN SLAVE TRADE)
(Significance of economic and financial factors) By mid 1700’s, Britain was importing ______________ hogsheads of sugar each year…
100,000.
(PROVIDED PROFIT)
Eric Williams ‘Decline Thesis” :
- ____________ colonies, e.g. __________ ____________ weren’t benefitting very much from the… where as the…
- There was a surplus of ___________, (…), ___________ tonnes.
- ________________ determined to limit…
- Britain had…
- Older colonies e.g. West Indies weren’t benefitting very much from the slave trade anymore, where as the younger ones were and wanted to keep it going.
- There was a surplus of sugar (lack of demand). (6,000 tons).
- Bonaparte (French emperor) determined to limit trade from Britain.
- Britain had high import tariffs.
(‘Decline Thesis’) Between 17__ - 18__, ___ plantations in Jamaica were abandoned and ___ were sold for debts…
1799-1807, 65 plantations abandoned and 32 sold for debts.
Seymour Dresher, Econcide :
(Argument against Williams)
- Criticised the decline thesis as sole reason for abolition.
- Many believed abolition was due to change from imperial mercantilism to a more laissez faire attitude. He believes this and decline led to abolition.
- Gov spending money protecting the slave trade which decreased it’s profitability, they realised free trade wouldn’t require their protection and would make profit in the LT.
(Decline thesis) A parliamentary committee discovered that a British ________ _____________ planter was producing at a loss, in 18_____ his profit was ___ & __/__ % and then in 180___ it was…
British West Indian Planter, 1800 : 2 1/2 %, in 1807 : nothing.
(Financial Considerations of Slave Trade) The _____________ ship disappeared meaning…
The Marlborough ship disappeared, meaning all that was on it (slaves and products) was lost. Resulting in a loss of profit.
- This happened often.
(LOSS OF PROFIT)
(Financial Considerations of Slave Trade) On the African __________ (17___) , _____ slaves of _____ died on the middle passage…
The African Queen, 1792. 114 died of 255.
(DEATH OF SLAVES)
(Financial Considerations of Slave Trade) __ in ___ slave voyages were subject to a revolt…
- This was…
- Crew often…
1 in 10.
- This was costly as slavers had to employ garrisons.
- Crew also often died, and this eventually put people off the job, meaning slavers had to increase wages to make it more desirable, once again raising costs.
(INCREASED COSTS)
(Financial Considerations of Slave Trade) Fitting out ships was very costly, ‘The Juba’ cost £________.
- Ships could be attacked by…
- Kitting out the…
£4678.
- Ships could be attacked by privateers and pirates, maintenance could be expensive and had to be frequent.
- Kitting out the ship with food and supplies was also costly.
(EXPENSES)
(Financial Considerations of Slave Trade) In 17____, Glasgow merchants were owed more than £__.__ million by their American partners…
1776, owed £1.3 million by their American partners.
(HIGH DEBT)
(Financial Considerations of Slave Trade) Of the ____ leading merchant houses in Liverpool, ___ had gone bankrupt by ______ because of debt owed to them…
30 leading merchant houses in Liverpool, 12 had gone bankrupt by 1788 because of debt owed to them.
As industrialisation took hold, the economic theories of _______ _________, that of Laissez-Faire…
Adam Smith, Were applied to the slave trade and it showed that slavery was not as efficient nor as cheap as free labour.
(happier people work harder).
(Decline thesis against) Profits of slave trade amounted to approx £__ million and by the end of the 1700’s this had increased to £___ million…
- However, the increase in…
£1 million, by end of 1700’s £3 million.
- However, the increase in slave riots and rebellions began to cost much more than this profit.
(Economic Argument) Laissez-faire industrialisation offered an alternative means for economic growth which…
Which abolitionists used to justify their cause and alleviate the fears of businessmen who were concerned about their income.
(Economic Argument) Slave trade was not in the decline yet, but it’s fair to suggest…
That, with the advent of industrialisation and the factory system, an alternative mode of commerce was showing even greater potential for the future.
(INDIVIDUALS) Clarkson published ‘Essay on…’ in _________ 17_____, sold _______________ copies.
‘Essay on the Slavery and Commerce of the Human Species, particularly the African’ in June 1786. 10,000 copies.
(INDIVIDUALS) Clarkson met who in 17___?
1787, Alexander Falconbridge.
- Former surgeon on board slave ships, was willing to testify about poor conditions.
(INDIVIDUALS) Clarkson wrote what for who?
Speeches for Wilberforce and was also the one to convince him to join the society and movement.
(INDIVIDUALS) Clarkson produced a…
Campaign chest including things like bags crafted by slaves (to show they were skilled and to humanise them) and shackles etc.
(INDIVIDUALS) Clarkson travelled __________________ miles around Britain, giving speeches and interviewed _____________ sailors…
- Lecturing and…
- Helped found __________ branches of society…
Travelled 35,000 miles in under 10 years and interviewed 20,000 sailors.
- Lecturing and agitating wherever he went.
- Helped found 1,200 branches of Society for Affecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade.
(INDIVIDUALS) William Wilberforce (MP of Hull) became the parliamentary voice of… Presented a bill every year from…
Abolition.
- Regular spoke in parliament, introducing bills every year after 1791-99.
(INDIVIDUALS) A negative of William Wilberforce is that he was a fan of…
Gradual abolition.
- Some historians say that he actually slowed down abolition.
(INDIVIDUALS) Wilberforce helped get a committee in Parliament to… and helped with the…
Investigate the slave trade.
~ Also helped with the impeachment of Lord Dundas in 1805.
(INDIVIDUALS) Wilberforce wasn’t formally involve until… in _____.
He was asked by his close friend, the newly-elected Prime Minister, William Pitt, to become the parliamentary spokesman for the campaign in 1787.
(INDIVIDUALS) Olaudah Equiano was the founder… which had how many members?
- Spoke lots at…
‘Sons of Africa’
- 12 members, including him.
- Spoke at lots of public meetings (had first-hand experience).
(INDIVIDUALS) Equiano published ‘…’ in 17_____.
‘The Intersting Narrative of the life of Olaudah Equiano, the African’ in 1789.
(Equiano history) :
- He had been a slave after being… Eventually, he made enough money to… Spent the next…
- He had been a slave after being kidnapped when he was 11. Eventually, he made enough money to buy his own freedom. He then spent the next 20 years travelling the world.
(INDIVIDUALS) Equiano travelled in Ireland for __ months and sold _______ copies…
8 months, 1,900 copies.
- Became bestseller in England.
(INDIVIDUALS) Equiano won’t of had…
A huge influence due to him being black.
(INDIVIDUALS) Elizabeth Heyrick wrote ‘__________________ not _____________…’ in 18_____.
- Thousands of…
- She took an interest in…
- Her views were often…
‘Immediate not gradual abolition’… 1824…
- Thousands of copies of this were sold in the US and UK.
- She took an interest in prisons, corporal punishment, wages etc.
- Her views were often seen as radical as gradual abolition was more popular.
(INDIVIDUALS) Elizabeth Heyrick made a case that a boycott of…
Goods produced by slave labour could help speed up abolition e.g. she started a sugar boycott.
- She was a prominent female campaigner.
(INDIVIDUALS)
- Ignatous Sancho was born…
- Ran away to… where…
- He became a…
- Was the first known…
On a slave ship in the Atlantic Slave Trade and sold into slavery.
- Ran away to Blackheath where John Montague taught him how to read.
- He became an abolitionist and composer.
- First known British African to vote actively since he was a male property owner.
(INDIVIDUAL) Mary Read managed to escape…
The West Indies (Slave Trade) & married a freeman Daniel James.
- Both moved to London where Mary’s memoirs were compiled together by Susanna Strickland and Thomas Pringle.
(Changing political climate, AWOI) Loss of America by the British in…
1783 certainly affected the abolitionists’ cause since it raised questions about liberty and the rights of men
(Changing political climate, AWOI) Big impact was the loss of market to sell slaves, in 17___ approx ___% of the population of the thirteen colonies were of…
1776, approximately 20% of the population of the Thirteen Colonies were of African descent.
(LESS PROFIT)
(Changing political climate, AWOI) The American revolution made many people in Britain consider…
- This was used as…
- This and ______________ autobiography made the movement gain…
Consider human experience and the importance of freedom.
- This was used as justification for ending the slave trade.
- This & Equiano’s autobiography made the movement gain considerable momentum.
(Changing political climate, AWOI) In _____, the Dolben act was passed which… In 17___ it was made permanent with…
1788, Dolben act passed which restricted the number of slaves on a ship.
- This was renewed each year (with improvements) until 1799 when it was made permanent with the Slave Regulation Act.
(Changing political climate, Napoleon + French Wars) Following French revolution (17______) slavery was abolished in France in 17_____ however the salve trade was reintroduced in…
French Revolution : 1789.
Abolishment : 1794.
Slave Trade Reintroduced : 1802 by Napoleon.
(Changing political climate, Napoleon + French Wars) In Britain, opposing the Slave Trade became…
- French reintroduction breathed…
- Hatred of… led to increased…
- Rallied…
- Opposing the Slave Trade became patriotic duty and the movement gathered pace so Wilberforce gained support. William Pit (PM) in 1806.
- French reintroduction breathed new life into campaign.
- HATRED OF NAPOLEON LED TO INCREASED PATRIOISM BY PEOPLE WHO INITIALLY DIDN’T SUPPORT ABOLITION. (Nap liked the slave trade, so Brits did opposite).
- Rallied common people together.
(Changing political climate, Napoleon + French Wars)
- French Revolution did hamper abolition in some ways, because British Abolitionists became tarnished with…
- Those involved could risk…
- WBF struggled to… for his bills from 17____-18______ as a result.
- Napoleonic Wars cost the British government almost £___ billion, of which most was raised through…
- British abolitionists became tarnished with the revolutionary brush which concerned the ruling class.
- Those involved could risk arrest.
- Meant Wilberforce found it difficult to rouse support for his bills between 1794-1802 as a result.
- Napoleonic Wars cost the British government almost £2 billion, of which most was raised through income tax, which levied against the richest.
(Changing political climate + fear of slave resistance) Saint Domingue, 17_____, more than ________ plantations burnt and __________ killed.
- Slaves attacked…
- Some found to have copies of…
1791, 1,000 plantations burnt and 12,000 killed.
~ slaves attacked plantation buildings, murders white men & women.
~ Some found to have copies of Wedgwood’s medallion
(Changing political climate, Napoleon + French Wars) Abolitionist movement faltered under Government crackdowns… Seditious Meetings Act (______) and the Treason Trials (17__/__) when…
Government crackdowns against ‘Revolutionaries’.
- Seditious Meetings Act (1795).
- Treason Trials (1793-94), Thomas Paine and Thomas Hardy were put on trial for their opposition to gov. policy.
(Changing political climate + fear of slave resistance) Saint Domingue, (_____). The French reaction was muddled because… produced ___% of the worlds sugar…
BECAME HAITI
1791, The goals of their revolution contradicted their stance on slavery.
30% of the worlds sugar.
~ StDo was the ‘crown jewel’ of Ftench slave trade
~ British soldiers wanted to conquer it, failed and eventually became Haiti.
(Changing political climate + fear of slave resistance) SAINT DOMINGUE (179___), HELP ABOLITION :
- Drew…
- Highlights…
- Cost them…
- Affected…
- 1791.
- Drew attention, won’t want to be associated with the terrors.
- Highlights capability of slaves (Toussaint L’Ouverture, slave leader).
- Cost them many soldiers.
- Affected French, less competition for Britain.
(Changing political climate + fear of slave resistance) SAINT DOMINGUE (179___), HINDER ABOLITION :
- People in the UK may start to…
- May want to fill in…
- 1791.
- People in UK may start to fear slaves, dehumanizes them, violent.
- May want to fill in gap in Market as if affected the French trade.
(Changing political climate + fear of slave resistance) St Lucia (17___), slaves rose up and over next __ months forced out… It took ________ British troops to retake the island against just _______ slaves…
1795, 4 months, forced out every white slave owner.
~ 12,000 British troops to retake against 2,000.
(Changing political climate + fear of slave resistance) ST LUCIA (1795), HELP ABOLITION :
- Drew attention to slavery.
- Plantations were burnt down, not an easy fix.
(Changing political climate + fear of slave resistance) ST LUCIA (179___), HINDER ABOLITION :
- May have made people…
- Many revolutionaries were…
- Unsuccessfull…
- 1795.
- May have made people scared and angry due to all the deaths, highlights violence.
- Many revolutionaries were deported, lost impact.
- Unsuccessful, along with Grenada and St Vincent.
(Changing political climate + fear of slave resistance) Jamaica (______), revolt led by… after they were… they ambushed and killed _____ British cavalrymen…
- Approx ________ maroons against ____________ British.
1795, led by Maroons (free blacks).
~ After they were seized and handcuffed, they ambushed and killed 36 British Cavalrymen.
~ Approx 500 maroons against 5,000 British.
(Changing political climate + fear of slave resistance) JAMAICA (1795), HELP ABOLITION :
~ Cost a lot of money £500,000 (not worth while spending).
~ Made Britain look weak in face of slave revolt.
~ Shows that slavery is expensive and wasting money.
(Changing political climate + fear of
slave resistance) JAMAICA (179___), HINDERED ABOLITION :
- Public opinion will be…
- Deported to…
- 1795.
- Public opinion will be poor due to death of British people, ‘maroons’ mean ‘savage’ in spanish.
- Deported to Nova Scotia (limiting long term impact).
(Changing political climate + fear of slave resistance) Revolts overall, of the _________ white officers and enlisted men who served in the British army, _________ died in battle or disease. _________ men were discharged due to wounds or illness…
89,000 officers, 45,000 died in battle or from disease.
~ In addition, 14,000 were discharged due to wounds of illness.
(Other reasons for abolition, Geography) In 17___, only __ coach ran from London to Birmingham, by 17___ there were ___…
1740, only 1.
1783 there were 30.
~ This would help abolitionists move around the country to educate people.
(Other reasons for abolition, Newspapers) Newspapers were __________________, therefore…
- By 17___, ____% were literate meaning…
Newspapers were uncensored, therefore anti-slavery propaganda could be published.
~ By 1789, 50% were literate meaning that newspapers and magazines were a good way to spread ideas, report abolitionist meetings and stimulate actions elsewhere.
(Other reasons for abolition, Coffeehouses and Libraries) More than ______ coffeehouses scattered around London alone…
500, here you could read literary works, share ideas etc.
(Other reasons for abolition, Naval ‘press gangs’) White-British slavery, forced to join the… Between 1740-180_, more than _____ violent…
Forced people to join the army, no matter whether they were rich or poor.
- Between 1740-1805, more than 500 violent brawls between press gangs and their victims were reported.
(Changing political climate, AWOI) Rhode Island + Connecticut in 17___ adopted…
1784, emancipation laws.
~ Freeing children born to slave mothers once they were 25.
(Changing political climate, AWOI) What did black reverts do in USA?
Sued for their liberty in a chain of ‘freedman suits’.
