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Clinical Veterinary Science and One Health 23/24 > Bovine Reproduction > Flashcards

Bovine Reproduction Flashcards

1
Q

What is the bovine reproductive year?

A

Gestation period = 280 days
Need to get back in calf by 80 days
Lactation for 305 days
Dry period is 60 days
Oestrous every 21 days

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2
Q

How is ovine and equine oestrous distinguished?

A

Sheep show oestrous when days shorten, horses show oestrous when days lengthen,

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3
Q

Define fertility.

A

The ability of a cow to give birth to a live calf at approximately 12 month intervals.

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4
Q

Define sterility.

A

The total inability of a cow to become pregnant and to give birth to a liver calf.

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5
Q

Define infertility/subfertility.

A

A reduced fertility, so the cow is ultimately capable of becoming pregnant and giving birth to a live calf but the interval may be much longer than 12 months.

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6
Q

What are possible reproductive difficulties in cattle?

A
  • Failure to cycle
  • Failure to be mated
  • Failure to conceive - fertilisation failure, early embryonic death
  • Late embryonic death (happen before day 16, cow does not recognise it is pregnant, corpus luteum died and comes back intro oestrous) and abortions
  • Dystocia
  • Stillbirths
  • Neonatal mortality
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7
Q

What is caused by PGF2a? How does this affect different stages of bovine gestation?

A

PGF2alpha produced by endometrium through counter current blood supply delivery to ovary, which destroys CL.

  • If given to a cow that has been pregnant for 2 weeks, cow will abort.
  • If given to a cow in the muddle of oestrous but have not seen signs, will bring forth CL and show signs of oestrous 3 days after.
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8
Q

What diseases affect hormone levels?

A

Lameness
Infectious diseases
Mastitis
Parasitism
Fatty liver
Ketosis

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9
Q

What nutritional factors affect hormone levels?

A
  • Energy or protein deficiency/imbalance
  • Malnutrition
  • Mineral or trace element deficiencies - P, Cu, Mn, Se, I, Co
  • Excess Mb
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10
Q

What stresses can affect hormone levels?

A

Social
Weather
High milk yield

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11
Q

What are the effects of affected hormone levels on bovine reproduction?

A

Hypothalamus > GnRH > anterior pituitary > lack of LH and FSH causing:

  • Delayed ovulation
  • Lack of follicular development
  • Ovulation failure > anovulation > regression atresia or cystic ovaries
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12
Q

Describe the cyclicity pattern of first ovulation.

A

First ovulation do not show oestrous, short CL.

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13
Q

Describe a normal bovine cyclicity pattern.

A

Normal has little peak and then 3 regular oestrous cycles, often does not get this far as cow usually pregnant by day 85. Act of suckling inhibits reproduction cycle.

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14
Q

Describe an interrupted bovine cyclicity pattern.

A

Can get interrupted cyclicity with very high yield milk cows, 60L milk per day will have effect of nutrition and stop cycling persistent luteal phase means progesterone does not destroy CL.

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15
Q

How long does involution of the uterus take after calving?

A

42-50 days

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16
Q

Define puberty in heifers.

A

7-18 months of age when heifers have reached 35-40% of mature body weight. Want to be in calf 14-15 months to have a calf for 24 months.

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17
Q

What is puberty onset by in cows?

A

Genotype
Season of year
Growth
Nutrition
Social cues
Climate
Disease

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18
Q

What is the duration of oestrous?

A

6 hours

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19
Q

What signs to high yielding cows exhibit?

A

Less mounts per heat period
Less intense expression of heat

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20
Q

When does ovulation occur in cows?

A

Ovulation occurs spontaneously 9-15 hours after the end of standing oestrus. Occurs 24 hours after the LH surge.

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21
Q

What are the chances of successful insemination at different stages of oestrous?

A

At the onset of standing oestrus CR = 40%
At mid-oestrus = 80%
6hrs after the end of oestrus = 60%
24hrs after end of oestrus = 10%

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22
Q

What is the effect of old age on fertility?

A
  • Decreased in older cow
  • Maiden heifers usually very fertile
  • 1st calvers have highest dystocia rate which lowers fertility and makes it more difficult or prolonged to get them in calf again
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23
Q

What are the only reliable signs of oetsrous in cattle?

A

Standing to be mounted and head mounting. Standing to be mounted by another cow and does not try to avoid or escape.

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24
Q

What is expression of oestrous influenced by?

A

Time post-partum
Time of day and year
Loafing areas (enough space to interact)
Lameness
Footing surfaces – will not mount if slippery
Nutrition
Body condition
Weather
Other cows in or around oestrus
Social
Pain or fear
Genetic factors
Presence of calf and suckling

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25
Q

List some possible heat detection aids.

A
  • Heat mount detectors, paints, sprays, KaMar, Bovine Beacon, Estrus detect etc.
  • Clear identification: freeze brands, large ear tags and neck bands
  • Staff training and financial bonuses
  • Good records and a 21 days calendar
  • Pedometers, Heatime, Cogent Pinpoint - many other new technological products now available
  • Vasectomised bull and a chin ball marker
  • Retaining a-cow with cystic ovarian disease
  • Close circuit television and time lapse video
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26
Q

What are some alternative methods of heat detection?

A
  • Prediction of oestrus by milk progesterone analysis
  • Oestrus synchronisation
  • Ovulation synchronisation
  • Natural service
  • Measurement of vaginal electrical resistance using a probe
  • Measurement of changes in milk temperature in the milking cluster
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27
Q

What do suckler beef cows commonly exhibit?

A

Anoestrus post-partum

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28
Q

What problems could occur at parturition or post-calving that could delay the onset of first oestrous?

A

Retained placenta
Metritis
Milk fever
Mastitis
Ketosis
Lameness
Poor nutrition

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29
Q

What does post-partum fertility depend on?

A

On condition:
- Too fat or too thin conditions reduce fertility
- A BCS of about 3 at calving should ensure that the cow does not drop below 2.5 at the time of service

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30
Q

What are the consequences of long or short gestation periods?

A

Birth weight – for each additional day in utero the rise can be between 186-540g/day Depending on sex and breed, with disproportionate growth of hips and shoulders

Dystocia – particularly common in heifers carrying male calves

Abortion affects milk yield

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30
Q

What does gestation length depend on?

A

Breed of dam
Genotype of foetus (breed of sire)
Sex of foetus
Number of foetuses
Parity of dam
Season
Nutrition

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31
Q

What are the veterinary herd fertility services?

A
  • Motivation of client to achieve targets
  • Regular visits (fortnightly routine call, larger herds will need more visits)
  • Ultrasound scanning for early pregnancy and ovarian structures
  • Oestrous synchronisation programmes
  • Post natal checks
  • Collect fertility data
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32
Q

When on a herd fertility visit, what is done with the AI cows on the list?

A
  • Record ID
  • Get a history
  • Record BCS
  • Record health status (include lameness, rumen fill) and medicines given
  • Communicate to the farmer your findings and instructions
  • Record these findings and actions
  • Optional: teat scores, cleanliness scores, faecal score
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33
Q

How is a vaginal exam conducted?

A
  1. Look and smell, including under the tail
  2. Tear off enough tissue to clean area
  3. Lift tail with dirty hand and place on elbow of clean hand
  4. Wipe vulva towards anus with tissue until clean with dirty hand
  5. Lift tail with dirty hand
  6. Inserted lubed clean hand into vagina
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34
Q

What should you take note of during a vaginal exam?

A

Note vaginal wall for tears
Gently the cervix for size and if opened/closed
Urethral fossa and false UF (diverticulum)
Any discharge

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35
Q

What should you take note of during rectal examination?

A
  • Temperature
  • Faeces – good for consistency and nutrition information
  • Peristalsis – gives indication of health
  • Rectal Wall
  • Internal structures
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36
Q

Name the internal structures you should/may feel on rectal examination?

A

Left kidney
Rumen
Small intestine/caecum
Aorta dorsal to hand
Pelvic brim
Cervix
Uterus
Bladder

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37
Q

Describe palpation of the uterus on rectal examination.

A
  • Tube-like, soft tissue structure with a cranial bifurcation and a dorsal ridge depicting two horns.
  • In older, multiparous cows, may extend over the pelvic brim.
  • In some cows it may all be within the pelvis
  • In cows on heat, it may be small, bunched and harder than normal
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38
Q

How are corpus lutea, follicles and cysts be detected on rectal examination?

A
  • Hard, circular structure (like knuckle) is most likely a CL
  • Softer, circular structure (like bubble wrap) is most likely a follicle
  • If larger than 2.5 cm (or thumb tip to first joint) then may be a cyst
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39
Q

What are the uses of ultrasound scanning for pregnancy diagnosis?

A
  • Extremely useful tool to assist in examination of reproductive tract
  • Can determine pregnancy to less than 30 days post service
  • Can distinguish structures on ovary
  • Can detect fluid in uterus
  • Can see foetal heart beat
  • Can size and age foetus
  • Can also be a good diagnostic tool for other conditions in caudal abdomen
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40
Q

What is the effect of increasing or decreasing frequency of ultrasound upon pregnancy diagnoses?

A
  • Increasing frequency (MHz) increases resolution
  • Decreasing frequency increases depth such as when viewing PDs > 55 days
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41
Q

How can you identify a follicle on an ultrasound scan?

A

They are fluid filled

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42
Q

Why does cystic ovarian disease occur?

A
  • Occurs due to either failure of LH surge at ovulation OR failure of follicle to respond to LH surge
  • So, follicle fails to ovulate and grows to form a cyst
  • Follicle initially produces oestradiol and prevents further follicles forming, then becomes inactive and can persist for weeks, or may produce progesterone
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43
Q

What should you beware of with cystic ovarian disease cows?

A

Don’t use PGF2α if there is any possibility of pregnancy

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44
Q

What can you feel on rectal examination at 6 weeks of gestation?

A

Swelling in pregnant horn at cranial end and underneath bifurcation only. Very difficult to feel. Cup hand around bifurcation and compare the 2 horns for firmness/fluidity. Foetus too small to feel.

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45
Q

What can you feel on rectal examination at 7 weeks of gestation?

A

Distinct and fluid feel to cranial pregnant horn and significantly different to firm non-pregnant horn. Foetus too small to feel.

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46
Q

What can be felt on rectal examination at 8 weeks of gestation?

A

Pregnant horn now size of half-filled water balloon. No placentomes. Can still feel difference to other horn. Foetus size of mouse but do not feel.

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47
Q

What can be felt on rectal examination at 10 weeks of gestation?

A

Fluid feel now usually in both horns. Bifurcation around level of pelvic brim. No placentomes. Uterus size of water filled balloon. Gentle patting of bifurcation end may feel golf-ball size foetus.

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48
Q

What can be felt on rectal examination at 12 weeks of gestation?

A

Uterus usually over pelvic brim. Ovaries may be out of reach. Placentomes starting to become palpable (like peas when gently sweep hand over uterus). Foetus size of rat.

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49
Q

What can be felt on rectal examination at 4 months of gestation?

A

Arm in fully and sweep downwards. Uterus is immediately palpable. Very fluidy. Placentomes size of rocks. Gently pat uterus at bifurcation end and can feel foetus but no features. No fremitus. Foetus size of small cat.

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50
Q

What can be felt on rectal examination at 5 months of gestation?

A

Arm in fully and sweep downwards. Uterus goes beyond reach and large placentomes present. Uterine artery is thickness of stethoscope but no fremitus. Very difficult as cow feels like she is not pregnant as you cannot reach the calf.

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51
Q

What can be felt on rectal examination at 6 months of gestation?

A

Arm in fully and sweep downwards. Uterus goes beyond reach and large placentomes present. Patting now reveals foetus with discernible features (head). Fremitus present approximately hand’s breadth in from tuber coxae and vertical. Uterine artery is thickness of stethoscope and pulses with “whoosh”. Foetus size of Jack Russell dog.

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52
Q

What can be felt on rectal examination at 7 months of gestation?

A

Insert arm and feel head beyond pelvic brim with front feet. Feet feel small. Foetus size of border collie.

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53
Q

What can be felt on rectal examination at 8 months of gestation?

A

Very difficult to tell when due to calve from 7 months onwards but head will feel like small calf with larger front feet. Foetus size of labrador

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54
Q

Why do false negatives occur in PD?

A
  • Unable to palpate uterus correctly
  • Recorded service date was incorrect
  • Cow may have been served again since recorded date
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55
Q

Why do false positives occur in PD?

A
  • Unable to palpate uterus correctly
  • Uterus not completely involuted – history
  • Pyometra/mucometra
  • Subsequent prenatal death
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56
Q

Describe the bovine placenta.

A

Multiple placentomes within the placenta. The placentome is made up of the cotyledon foetal side and the caruncle on the uterine side

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57
Q

What is aging pregnancies by palpation based on?

A
  • Amniotic vesicle size
  • Foetus size
  • Placentome size – variable in size and number
  • Uterine horn size
  • Middle uterine artery size and fremitus
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58
Q

What is the risk of palpation?

A
  • Bursting amniotic vesicle
  • Damaging foetus or foetal membranes
  • Membrane slip plus palpation of amniotic vesicle increase risk of abortion especially in early stages of pregnancy
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59
Q

What are the less common lab based pregnancy diagnoses?

A
  • Milk Progesterone
  • Oestrone Sulphate
  • Bovine pregnancy-associated glycoprotein
  • Bovine pregnancy specific protein-B
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60
Q

What is the milk progesterone test?

A

Test for non-pregnancy. It relies on testing progesterone levels 18-24 days after AI when they should be decreased if not pregnant

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61
Q

Why do false positives occur in milk progesterone tests?

A
  • Cow inseminated at wrong time (dioestrus)
  • Persistent CL (due to chronic infection)
  • Luteal cyst
  • Shorter than average interval between oestruses
  • Prenatal death after sampling
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62
Q

Why do false negatives occur in milk progesterone tests?

A
  • Inadequate mixing of milk sample
  • Exposure of sample to heat or UV light
  • Incorrect ID of sample
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63
Q

What are the properties of all year-round calving systems?

A
  • Cows calving at any time of the year
  • No seasonal emphasis
  • No period when the whole herd is dry
  • Can be extensive grazing systems or fully housed herds
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64
Q

What are the properties of seasonal block calving systems?

A
  • Calve as a single group in a 12 week window
  • Aim for 365 day target calving interval
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65
Q

What are the signs of low fertility on a farm?

A
  • Low profit
  • Vet found empty cows
  • Cows returning to service
  • Cows take longer to cycle
  • Cows in seasonal calving herds are late calving
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66
Q

What are the management factors of fertility?

A

Heat detection
Insemination skill
Environmental stresses
Vaccinations
Transition cow nutrition

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67
Q

What are the cow factors of fertility?

A

Dystocia
Retained foetal membranes
Uterine infections
Twins

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68
Q

What are the herd factors of fertility?

A

Bull fertility
Breed
Age
Production
Infectious disease
Nutrition

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69
Q

What are the important things to record for herd fertility?

A
  • Cow ID, age, and lactation number
  • Voluntary wait period (VWP)
  • Calving date
  • Heat dates (incl. pre-mating if possible)
  • AI service dates and sire used
  • Pregnancy testing dates and results
  • Abortion dates
  • Calving problems – twins, RFM
  • Other health problems – ketosis, LDA, uterine diseases
  • Body condition scores
  • Mobility scores
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70
Q

What is a voluntary wait period?

A

Management imposed period of rest after calving where farmer chooses not to breed. Commonly 42-50 days

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71
Q

What are the benefits of a voluntary wait period?

A
  • Allows the cow to recover from the stressors of calving
  • Allow uterine involution to occur
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72
Q

What are the key performance indicators of normal herd fertility?

A
  • Submission rate – 1st service submission rate, all service submission rate
  • Heat detection efficiency
  • Calving to conception interval – calving to 1st service, 1st service to conception
  • Conception rate – 1st service conception rate, 100d in calf rate
  • Pregnancy rate/fertility efficiency
  • Calving index/interval
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73
Q

What 2 things is successful herd fertility a function of?

A

Serving the cows – heat detection

Achieving pregnancy – conception rate

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74
Q

Define submission rate.

A

Proportion of cows that are submitted for AI/service of the whole group that are ready for service, over a defined period, such as 21 or 24 days.

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75
Q

Define the 1st service 24 day submission rate percentage.

A

Proportion mated that are eligible during 1st 24 days of a mating period.

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76
Q

Define returns submission rate percentage.

A

Cows that should have been submitted for re-service due to not being pregnant.

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77
Q

What are 4 post-partum anoestrous risk factors?

A
  • Low body condition score at calving
  • Poor dry period nutrition and negative energy balance post calving
  • Lameness problems in herd
  • Post parturient disease
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78
Q

What are 2 risk factors of oestrous occurring but not being detected?

A
  • Poor heat detection technique
  • High yielding cows reduced oestrus signs
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79
Q

Define conception rate.

A

Percentage of cows pregnant of those served. Take care, it is actually a measure of pregnancy not conception. Many more cows will conceive than are actually pregnant.

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80
Q

What may affect return to oestrous?

A

Fail to fertilise or embryo fails to signal = return to oestrous 18-24 days later

Late embryonic death = will return to cycle but delayed

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81
Q

Why may failure of fertilisation occur?

A
  • Bull fertility is low – check bull semen
  • Poor AI technique or bad semen handling
  • Wrong timing service – due to heat detection errors, genetics
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82
Q

Why may there be early embryonic losses?

A
  • Ineffective nutrition management
  • Infectious diseases – campylobacter, BVD, leptospirosis, IBR
  • Stress
  • Lameness, SCC, mastitis
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83
Q

What are the risk factors of long calving to conception?

A
  • Poor conception rates
  • Early/late embryonic loss
  • Cows not being detected when they return to oestrus – heat detection efficiency and accuracy
  • Abnormal cycles
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84
Q

Define calving interval.

A

The interval in days for an individual cow between one calving and another. Calving index – is the average of the calving intervals of all cows in the herd.

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85
Q

When is the most profitable lifetime yield for heifers?

A

Heifer calves at 2 years

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86
Q

How is beef herd fertility measured?

A

Calving spread is a good measure of cows fertility performance. Better to have less spread – vaccinate, feed at same time

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87
Q

Describe beef herd cyclicity.

A
  • To maintain a compact calving period the calving interval must be 365 days
  • Beef cows generally don’t show first oestrus until 40-50 days post-partum
  • So bull needs to go back in by 80 days after the planned start of calving date
  • Late calving cows will not have sufficient time to resume cyclicity and become pregnant again
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88
Q

What are the management strategies to maximise beef fertility?

A
  • Manage cow body condition/nutrition
  • Avoid difficult calving’s
  • Control infectious disease
  • Replacement heifer management
  • Monitor bull fertility
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89
Q

When are breeding soundness examinations in bulls done?

A

Infertility investigation
Pre-purchase
Pre-breeding season

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90
Q

Why may a bull lack libido?

A
  • Breed variation – dairy bulls more hyped than beef bulls
  • Variation within breeds
  • Age
  • Bullying by females or other males
  • Noise and distractions
  • Unusual environments
  • Boredom
  • Lack of exercise
  • Overweight
  • Overuse
  • Severe debility
  • Intercurrent disease
  • Pain – can rupture latissimus dorsi in the back and be subtly lame and not mount
  • Rupture of corpus cavernosum penis
  • Uncertainty about foothold
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91
Q

Why may a bull be hesitant to mount but have good libido?

A
  • Painful musculoskeletal lesion
  • Penile fibropapillomata
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92
Q

Why may a bull fail to exteriorise the penis?

A
  • Adhesions
  • Phimosis
  • Stenosis of preputial orifice
  • Impotence
  • Spiral deviation within prepuce
  • Congenitally short penis
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93
Q

Why may a bull have no intromission?

A
  • Deviation – spiral, ventral. Penis forms a spiral before ejaculation, but cannot get into vagina is this forms before entering the vagina
  • Persistent penile frenulum
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94
Q

Why may a bull not thrust?

A

Damaged dorsal nerve of penis

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95
Q

How is the penis examined?

A
  • Before and after mating
  • Xylazine
  • Pudendal nerve block
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96
Q

What is a penile haematoma?

A
  • Broken/ruptured penis/CCP
  • Due to sudden angulation of penis
  • Causes tunica albuginea of corpus cavenosum tears at weak point, which is at the dorsal aspect of the distal bend of the sigmoid flexure
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97
Q

What are the clinical signs of penile haematoma?

A
  • Swelling cranial to the scrotum
  • Stiff, short stride
  • Temporary oedematous eversion of prepuce
  • 50% cases have abscessation
  • Initial reluctance to serve, then inability to extrude penis due to formation of adhesions
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98
Q

What is the prognosis of penile haemtoma?

A
  • Infection, abscessation, adhesions
  • Damage to dorsal nerve of penis
  • Vascular shunts from corpus cavernosum to dorsal veins
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99
Q

How does a bull get a spiral deviation of the penis?

A

Deviation/spiralling prior to intromission

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100
Q

What are the clinical signs of spiral deviations of the penis?

A
  • Failure to extrude penis – spiralling within prepuce/spiralling once cows hindquarters touched
  • Sudden/gradual onset
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101
Q

What is phimosis?

A

Stricture of preputial orifice
Leads to strangulation

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102
Q

How is phimosis treated?

A

Remove wedge from orifice surgically but careful if genetic and not traumatic, will only treat and perpetuate genetic problem

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103
Q

What is balanoposthitis?

A
  • Inflammation of penis and prepuce
  • Non-specific infections and trauma
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104
Q

What does impotence lead to in the bull?

A

An escape route for blood, such as shunts, or blockage in proximal penis prevents blood reaching distal part

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105
Q

What are the causes of impotence in the bull?

A
  • Congenitally abnormal large distal veins draining corpus cavernosum within body of penis
  • Corpus cavernosum drained by distal network of small veins
  • Corpus cavernosum drained by veins which develop at site of traumatic injury to tunica
  • Dorsal canals of corpus cavernosum blocked by fibrous tissue, haematoma or thrombus
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106
Q

How does testicular hypoplasia in the bull present?

A

Small firm testes
Small epididymis
Small scrotum
Normal libido

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107
Q

What are the signs of testicular degeneration?

A
  • Failure of spermatogenesis
  • Increased flaccidity
  • Increased immature
  • Malformed spermatozoa fibrosis of seminiferous tubules
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108
Q

What are the causes of testicular degeneration?

A
  • Systemic infection
  • Trauma ischaemia
  • Extreme heat/cold
  • Congenital occlusion of efferent ductules causing back pressure and so oedema and then degeneration
  • Autoimmunity
  • Toxins
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109
Q

Why may a bull’s testicle be enlarged?

A

Orchitis
Abscess
Haematoma
Rarely neoplasia

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110
Q

What is orchitis?

A

Unilateral – inflamed and hot causing the other to degenerate. Often with periorchitis and epididymitis

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111
Q

How is orchitis treated?

A

Antibiotics
NSAIDs
Unilateral castration

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112
Q

What are the problems that can affect the epididymis of bulls?

A

Trauma
Infection
Segmental aplasia
Congenital occlusion

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113
Q

What can congenital occlusion cause in the bull?

A
  • Spermatocele (cystic dilation of the epididymis)
  • Inspissated sperm accumulate behind lesions
  • Epididymal wall usually ruptures and build up back pressure in the testicle leading to sperm granuloma
  • Eventual testicular degeneration
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114
Q

What are the acute clinical signs of seminal vesiculitis in bulls?

A
  • Severe pain (on examination and defaecation)
  • Purulent discharge after service
  • Pus in semen
  • Enlarged and firm
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115
Q

What are the chronic clinical signs of seminal vesiculitis in bulls?

A
  • Pus in semen
  • Fibrosis (firm)
  • Loss of lobulations
  • No pain
  • Usually older bulls
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116
Q

What are the infectious sexually transmitted causes of bovine abortion?

A

Campylobacter fetus
BHV-1
BVD
Mycoplasma
Ureaplasma
Leptospires
Tritrichomonas fetus
Histophilus somni
C. renale

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117
Q

What are the infectious non-sexually transmitted causes of bovine abortion?

A

Salmonella Dublin
Bacillus licheniformis
Schmallenberg virus

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118
Q

How can abortion causing infectious agents be classified?

A

Primary – those agents acting directly upon the uterus, placenta, foetus

Secondary – those agents causing systemic diseases which as a secondary effect adversely influence conception/pregnancy

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119
Q

Define abortion in bovine.

A

Production of 1 or more calves less than 271 days after service or AI. They are either dead or live for less than 24 hours.

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120
Q

When is investigation necessary for abortions on farm?

A

When frequency exceeds 3-5%

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121
Q

What action should be taken following abortion under the Brucellosis Orders?

A
  • Reported to DEFRA
  • Aborting or aborted cow must be isolated together with the foetus or calf and placenta
  • The placenta and foetus should be disposed of by incineration or deep burial
  • All abortions should be treated as infectious and potentially zoonotic until proven otherwise
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122
Q

Following an abortion, which samples are collected for the lab?

A

Blood, milk, placenta, foetal stomach contents, foetal blood, brain, other internal organs

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123
Q

What are 3 protozoal causes of bovine abortion?

A

Neospora caninum
Tritrichomonas fetus (not UK)
Babesia – causes redwater

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124
Q

Why may the cause of abortion be failed to be idnetified?

A
  • Cause occurred much earlier
  • Foetus retained after death for some time causing autolysis
  • Foetal membranes not available
  • Toxic and genetic factors not identified in specimens
  • Many causes unknown or physiological
  • Interpretation of tests can be difficult
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125
Q

What are the 6 main ways that bovine herpes virus 1 may present?

A

Respiratory (IBR)
Conjunctival (IBR)
Abortion
IPVV/IBP
Encephalomyelitis
Enteritis

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126
Q

What is the effect of bovine herpes virus 1 on pregnancy?

A
  • May cause embryonic death and repeat breeding
  • Abortions usually from 5 months onwards
  • Infection late in pregnancy may cause stillbirths or non-viable calves
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127
Q

How can bovine herpes virus 1 be controlled?

A
  • Eliminate carriers if they can be identified
  • Killed vaccine available for pregnant stock, but won’t prevent abortion if female is already infected
  • Marker vaccines
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128
Q

What does infectious pustular vulvo-vaginitis cause?

A

Does not prevent conception per se, but can cause embryonic death (not abortion)

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129
Q

What are the clinical signs of pustular vulvo-vaginitis?

A

Vulval hyperaemia
Vesicles
Ulcers
Pain
Straining
Frequent urination
Tail swishing
Pyrexia
Milk yield decreased
Vaginal discharge

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130
Q

What are the clinical signs of infectious balanoposthitis in bulls?

A

Preputial discharge
Similar lesions on penis and prepuce
Libido decrease but fertility normally unaffected

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131
Q

What is the effect of blue tongue virus on fertility?

A
  • Temporary infertility in bulls and rams
  • Reduced conception rates in Cows (infertility)
  • The virus can cross the placenta and infect the foetus
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132
Q

What are the clinical signs of leptospirosis in cattle and sheep?

A

Bovine: abortion, milk drop, infertility. Subclinical has reduced milk yield and weak calves

Sheep: usually no signs evident, minor cause of abortion, importance source of infection for cattle

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133
Q

What are the risk factors of leptospirosis in cattle?

A
  • Bought in cattle
  • Use of a bull
  • Grazing with sheep
  • Abscess to water courses
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134
Q

How should bought in stock be treated to prevent leptospirosis infection?

A
  • Isolate, possibly treat with antibiotics and vaccinate
  • Keep in isolation until about 1 week after second vaccination
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135
Q

What are the management factors to reduce risk of leptospirosis infection in cattle?

A
  • Prevent access to watercourses
  • Minimum 2 month gap between sheep grazing and cattle grazing pasture.
  • Minimum 2 month gap between slurry spreading and cattle grazing
  • Use AI rather than hired or shared bull
  • Operate a closed herd
  • Biosecurity
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136
Q

How does leptospirosis vaccination affect abortion?

A

If placenta already damaged, will not prevent abortion

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137
Q

How does salmonella cause abortion in cattle?

A

Secondary to systemic disease. Most occur in late pregnancy in the absence of systemic illness

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138
Q

How is salmonella controlled to prevent bovine abortion?

A
  • Isolate aborters for 5 weeks
  • Dispose of products of abortion very carefully
  • Decontaminate environment
  • Consider vaccination where S. Dublin is a persistent problem
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139
Q

What are the sources on farm of bacillus licheniformis?

A

Thrive in mouldy hay, feed, straw
Silage
Ingestion – haematogenous spread

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140
Q

What are the clinical signs of bacillus lichniformis?

A
  • Usually abort in late pregnancy
  • Usually sporadic but occasional small outbreaks
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141
Q

How is bacillus licheniformis diagnosed?

A
  • Gross appearance of placenta (similar to mycotic abortion)
  • Isolation of bacillus from placenta, foetal stomach and vaginal discharge
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142
Q

How is bacillus licheniformis controlled?

A
  • Difficult as the organism is ubiquitous
  • Improve ventilation
  • Avoid contaminated and poor quality feed and bedding
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143
Q

What are the clinical signs of campylobacter foetus var venearlialis in males?

A

None, asymptomatic carriers

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144
Q

What are the clinical signs of campylobacter foetus var venearlialis in females?

A
  • Mucopurulent vaginal discharge
  • Repeat breeder due to early embryonic death (EED)
  • Abortion at 4-7 months of gestation
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145
Q

What is the first sign of disease in campylobacter foetus var veneearlis?

A

A large number of returns to oestrus following service with this bull. Only later may abortions be seen.

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146
Q

How is campylobacter foetus var venearlis diagnosed in females?

A
  • Isolate organism from vaginal discharge or products of abortion
  • Vaginal microscopic agglutination (MAT)
  • Collect mucus in luteal phase of cycle and examine for antibodies
  • PCR is commercially available
  • Serology is useless
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147
Q

How is campylobacter foetus var venearlis diagnosed in males?

A
  • Bacteriological examination of semen
  • Florescent antibody test (FAT) on preputial washings/scrapings.
  • Virgin heifer test – not ethical
  • PCR
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148
Q

What are the 3 epidemiological factors of campylobacter foetus var venerealis?

A
  • Transmission is venereal
  • Untreated bulls remain permanently infected
  • Cows overcome the infection and develop immunity over 3-6 months
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149
Q

How is Campylobacter foetus var venerealis controlled?

A
  • Use A.I
  • To avoid infected females infecting or reinfecting a male, allow two normal pregnancies by AI before resuming natural breeding
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150
Q

How is campylobacter foetus var venearlialis treated?

A
  • Antibiotic therapy systemically for several days and by penile and preputial irrigation.
  • 4 consecutive FAT should be negative before bull is re-used on clean stock
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151
Q

What are the disease entities associated with mycoplasmosis?

A

Granular vulvovaginits
Abortion and premature birth
Venereal transmission

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152
Q

How is Q fever transmitted?

A

Airborne infection
Ticks
Contaminated needles

153
Q

How is Q fever diagnosed?

A

Demonstration of organism in stained smears of cotyledons and foetal stomach contents
Serology

154
Q

What are the clinical signs of chlamydophilia psittaci?

A
  • Early embryonic deaths
  • Abortion in late pregnancy with/without systemic disease
155
Q

How is chlamydophila psittaci diagnosed?

A

Isolation of organism from ocular discharge in affected animals and cotyledonary smears. Serology of dam and foetal pleural fluids.

156
Q

What does brucella abortus cause?

A

Can cause abortion storms

157
Q

How is brucella abortus diagnosed?

A
  • All abortion/premature calvings must be reported
  • Blood, milk and vaginal swabs taken if requested by DEFRA
158
Q

How is brucella abortus controlled?

A

Checked routinely via the monthly bulk milk test

159
Q

What is mycotic abortion?

A

Many fungal agents involved. Abortions usually sporadic, but up to 10% of herd may abort

160
Q

What are the UK’s most common mycotic abortive agents?

A

Aspergillus, absidia and mucor

161
Q

How do fungi cause bovine abortions?

A

Ingestion/inhalation > blood stream > uterus > placentitis and endometritis> foetal infection

162
Q

How can neospora caninum abortions be diagnosed in cattle?

A
  • Abortion usually mid-term
  • Mummification may occur
  • Histopathology of foetal tissues
  • Parasites in CNS or heart confirmed by immunoperoxidase
163
Q

How are calves diagnosed for neospora caninum?

A

New-born congenitally infected calves typically have a very high antibody response. Calves should be tested either before colostrum intake, or after having colostrum from their dam

164
Q

What are the clinical signs of noespora caninum in cattle?

A
  • Infertility – abortion, early foetal death, mummified foetuses, stillbirths
  • Neuromuscular disease in neonatal calves
  • Reduced milk production
165
Q

How can neospora caninum ne controlled?

A
  • Cull infected cattle or do not breed for replacements
  • Select seronegative heifer replacements
  • Restrict access of dogs (and other animals) to feed and water sources
  • Improve hygiene at calving and abortion including the careful disposal of all placentae, even those from ‘normal’ calvings
166
Q

What is trichomonas?

A

Flagellate protozoan parasite of the bovine prepuce, vagina and uterus. Venereal transmission

167
Q

What are the clinical signs of trichomoniasis in males?

A

Balanoposthitis with slight catarrhal discharge

168
Q

What are the clinical signs of trichomoniasis in females?

A

Repeat breeders with vaginal discharge, pyometra with acyclicity, abortion usually 2-4 months

169
Q

How is trichomoniasis diagnosed in cattle?

A

Identification of organism in vaginal discharge, penile and preputial scrapings

170
Q

How is trichomoniasis controlled?

A

Females acquire resistance and untreated bulls will remain carriers, so use AI

171
Q

What are the non-infectious causes of bovine abortion?

A
  • Genetic factors or teratogens
  • Twin pregnancy
  • Trauma/stress
  • Insemination/intra-uterine infusion
  • High fever and endotoxins
  • Nutritional deficiency
  • Hypothyroidism (goitrogens)
  • Drug induced: PGF2α, corticosteroids, oestrogen, xylazine
  • Exotoxins (poisonous plants), mycotoxins, nitrates
  • Shock/ fright
172
Q

What is the rule of thumb concerning administration of prostaglandins?

A

If any doubt, do not administer PGs

173
Q

Where is progesterone produced from during bovine pregnancy?

A

By the CL and also by the placenta between about days 120-175 in cattle.

174
Q

How does the foetus hormonal control over bovine parturition?

A
  • Increased corticotrophin releasing factor
  • Increased adrenocorticotropin
  • Increased cortisol
175
Q

How does the placenta have hormonal control over bovine parturition?

A
  • Decreased progesterone
  • Increased oestrogen – stimulate oxytocin receptors
  • Increased prostaglandin – uterus
176
Q

How does the mother’s uterus have hormonal control over bovine parturition?

A
  • Increased softening of cervix, relaxin from ovary
  • Increased gap junctions in myometrial cells
  • Increased myometrial contractions
  • Increased pressure on cervix and vagina
177
Q

How does the pituitary gland have hormonal control over bovine parturition?

A

Increased oxytocin

178
Q

What are the signs of impending calving?

A
  • Increased udder development
  • Oedema of the udder and ventral abdominal wall
  • Relaxation of pelvic ligaments
  • Sinking of the sacrosciatic area
  • Relaxation of the perineum and vulva
  • Liquefaction of mucous cervical seal which appears as a cloudy mucoid vulval discharge
179
Q

How long is the first stage of bovine parturition?

A

6 hours (average)

180
Q

What are the signs of the first stage of bovine parturition?

A

Restlessness
Inappetence
Desire for isolation
Tail twitching
Paddling of feet

181
Q

What happens in the second stage of bovine parturition?

A

Allantochorion/water beg ruptures with the escape of watery allantoic fluid.

182
Q

What is the average duration of the second stage of bovine parturition?

183
Q

What happens in the third stage of bovine parturition?

A

Expulsion of foetal membranes. Average duration of 6 hours. Normal detachment of the placenta as a result of:

  • Uterine contractions
  • Ripening and maturation of the placenta
  • Rupture of the umbilicus with rapid ‘bleed out’ of the foetal side of the placenta with shrinkage of the foetal placental villi.
  • Distortion of the caruncle by the myometrial contractions causing detachment of the cotyledon
  • Gravitational pull
184
Q

What hormones can be used to induce premature calving?

A
  • Water soluble, short-acting corticosteroid
  • Medium-acting corticosteroid
  • Prostaglandin F2α or analogues
  • Combinations
185
Q

What are the indications for premature induction of parturition?

A
  • Misalliance
  • Reduce possibility of dystocia
  • Tighten a seasonal calving pattern – not ethical
  • Advance time of calving in a cow suffering from disease or injury
  • Excessive oedema
  • Hydrallantois
  • Mummified foetus
186
Q

What should you use to induce parturition before 100 days of gestation?

A

Prostaglandin PGF2α

187
Q

What should you use to induce parturition between 250 and 275 days of gestation?

A

Medium acting corticosteroid or medium acting plus short acting corticosteroid

188
Q

What should you use to induce parturition over 275 days of gestation?

A

Medium plus short-acting corticosteroid or
medium acting corticosteroid plus PGF2α

189
Q

What should you use to induce parturition after 282 days of gestation?

A
  • Medium acting corticosteroid
  • Short acting corticosteroid
  • PGF2α
190
Q

What should be done if corticosteroids are used to induce premature parturition?

A

Cows or heifers should be examined to eliminate the presence of infectious disease.

191
Q

What are the possible problems with inducing premature parturition?

A
  • Sufficient softening and relaxation of the vulva, perineum and pelvic ligaments does not always occur following the use of prostaglandins
  • Placental retention is common
  • Uterine involution may be delayed with risk of metritis and chronic endometritis
192
Q

Why is clenbuterol used in bovine parturitions?

A
  • Delay heifer deliveries to allow full preparation of the soft birth canal
  • To relax the uterus as an aid to obstetrical manoeuvres in dystocia
  • To relax the uterus for caesarean section
  • In embryo transfer to ensure less traumatic manipulation of the uterus
  • To delay and therefore programme delivery to permit observation of parturition
193
Q

What are the specific signs of dystocia?

A
  • Prolonged non-progressive first stage labour
  • The cow standing in an abnormal posture during first stage labour – in cases of uterine torsion the cow may stand with a dipped back
  • Straining vigorously for 30 minutes without the appearance of a calf
  • Failure of the calf to be delivered within 2 hours of the amnion appearing at the vulva
194
Q

Why may there be expulsive force problems during calving?

A

Uterine inertia
Ca/Mg deficiency
Fatty deposits
Environmental disturbance
Abdominal pain

195
Q

Why may there be bitch canal problems during calving?

A

Inadequate pelvis
Breed
Immaturity
Diet
Cervix fails to dilate
Torsion
Rupture

196
Q

Why may there be oversizing problems in calving?

A

Absolute – sire breed, prolonged gestation, developmental defects

Relative

197
Q

Why may there be positional problems in calving?

A

Presentation – anterior, posterior

Position – dorsa, ventral, lateral

Posture – flexed limbs, head back

198
Q

What are the general principles when dealing with dystocia cases?

A
  1. Treat all dystocia cases as emergencies
  2. Be prepared
  3. Obtain history
  4. If possible, perform a rapid general examination in case the cow is suffering from peracute mastitis or another life-threatening illness – TPR/Milk Fever
  5. Never underestimate the risk factor with dealing with a calving cow
  6. Vaginal examination
  7. Uterine relaxant
  8. Epidural anaesthesia
199
Q

Why must the position of the cow be considered when administering epidural anaesthesia in cows?

A

Do not have them facing downhill, do slightly uphill when giving epidural – to prevent going further up the spinal cord.

200
Q

What drugs may be needed on dystocia/calving cases?

A

Local anaesthetic
Xylazine (Rompun)
NSAID
Clenbuterol
Oxytocin
Calcium/Phosphorus
Antibiotic

201
Q

Distinguish cranial and caudal presentations.

A

If cranial presentation – head and legs in pelvis, and space or head. Should deliver.

If caudal presentation – hocks already out of vulva. Should deliver

202
Q

When should cesarean be considered?

A

If delivery by traction is not successful within 10 minutes, it should be abandoned in favour of a caesarean. If no progress, stop. A successful caesarean depends on an early decision – the viability of the calf and the health of the cow will be compromised if traction is prolonged.

203
Q

When is an epistiotomy done?

A

Anterior presentation. Only if the vulva is restricting passage of the head

204
Q

What is a foetotomy?

A
  • Deviated head
  • Hip lock
  • Decapitation in retained forelimb
  • Hip flexion/breech
205
Q

Why could uterine torsion be a medical emergency?

A

Duration, hydration, shock. Consider fluid therapy before attempting delivery

206
Q

How do you manage uterine torsion?

A
  • Rocking calf with cow standing
  • Rolling cow with/without plank – plank fixes the uterus while the cow’s body is turned slowly
  • Caesarean
  • Laparotomy and correction
207
Q

What are the 3 suitable conditions for maintenance of bovine pregnancy?

A
  • A normal uterus
  • Appropriate hormonal status
  • Freedom from uterine infection
208
Q

When can prenatal death occur during bovine pregnancy?

A

At any stage of gestation

209
Q

What happens in early embryonic death in bovine pregnancy?

A
  • Dies before day 15
  • Returns to oestrous at a normal interval
  • Impossible to differentiate it from fertilisation failure
  • Animals present as repeat breeders if this occurs multiple times
210
Q

What happens in late embryonic death in bovine pregnancy?

A
  • Embryo dies between day 15 and 42
  • Returns to oestrous after a prolonged and irregular interval
  • May be a slight vulval discharge due to slightly larger conceptus so some material may be lost with this
211
Q

What are the possible causes of embryonic death?

A
  • Genetic factors
  • Stress, including heat stress
  • Infection resulting in pyrexia
  • Fatty liver disease
  • Nutritional deficiencies and excesses
  • Endocrine deficiencies, asynchrony and imbalance
  • Non-specific infectious agents
  • Small embryo
212
Q

What happens in foetal death?

A
  • Between day 43 and term
  • Early foetal death can be followed by expulsion of foetal fluids, autolysis of foetal tissue and membranes which are voided and are sometimes not detected
213
Q

What may accompany foetal death?

A

Resorption
Abortion
Mummification
Foetal maceration
Stillbirth

214
Q

What happens in foetal mummification?

A
  • Foetus dies and becomes dehydration
  • Corpus luteum persists and cow fails to calve at expected time
  • There is no udder development.
215
Q

How is foetal mummification detected on rectal palpation?

A

Hard mass in uterus, no placentomes, fluid or fremitus. Corpus luteum maintained and cervix is closed.

216
Q

How is foetal mummification treated?

A

PGF2a, causing them to essentially come into oestrous, cervix will open, large amounts of mucus is produced in the uterus and vagina and they will expel the foetus. Corticosteroids not effective.

217
Q

What is papyraceous mummification?

A

Any breed. All foetal fluids slowly resorbed. Aetiology is rarely ascertained. Mostly due to infections of BVD, leptospirosis, neospora and genetics/certain sires.

218
Q

When does foetal maceration occur?

A

Sequel to foetal death. Occurs in cows after the 3rd month of gestation and is a sequel to incomplete process of abortion

219
Q

What happens in foetal maceration?

A

Corpus luteum regresses, parturition process begins but not completed. Partial dilation of cervix allows bacteria into uterus that infect the dead foetus and break down soft tissue sleaving just bony tissues, embedded deep into endometria.

220
Q

What is hydrops?

A

Excessive accumulation of foetal fluids

221
Q

What is hydramnios?

A

Rare, usually co-exists with a foetal abnormality. Due to failure of swallowing by the foetus

222
Q

What are the clinical signs of hydramnios?

A
  • No external signs in the cow
  • Examination per rectum
  • Excessive uterine enlargement due to excessive fluid
  • Placentomes usually palpable
223
Q

What is hydrallantois?

A

More common, not normally associated with foetal abnormality. Excessive fluid is in allanto-chorion. Postulated that foetal/maternal incompatibility is the basic root cause. Thought to be due to the failure of the selective reabsorption of electrolytes from the allantois.

224
Q

What are the clinical signs of hydrallantois?

A
  • Abdominal distension is the main sign
  • Per rectum – huge fluid filled mass palpable plus bilateral fremitus
  • Placentomes and foetus often impalpable
  • The animal may become recumbent and die with huge abdomen and difficulty to eat
225
Q

How is hydrallantois treated medically?

A

Induce abortion with PGF2α or Dexamethasone. There may be dystocia, so need to assist as cervix may not open correctly

226
Q

How is hydrallantois treated surgically?

A

2 stage drainage of allanto-chorion using a large gauge needle inserted low in right flank or via catheterisation of cervix. 30 litres of fluid is removed followed by caesarean section or drug induced abortion. Unlikely to have viable calf and cow that is in poor body condition, welfare is risked when removing such an amount of fluid.

227
Q

Name 3 other abnormalities of foetal fluids.

A

Hydrocephalus
Foetal anasarca
Foetal ascites

228
Q

When does vaginal prolapse occur?

A

Usually occurs after 7th month of pregnancy

229
Q

Why may vaginal prolapse occur?

A

Due to relaxation of the soft tissues around the pelvis – pelvic ligaments, the vagina and vulva and later dilation of the cervix.

230
Q

What is the aetiology of vaginal prolapse?

A

Multifactorial
Breed (Hereford)
Parity
Overfeeding
Lack of exercise
Sloping surface to stand on
Previous prolapse

231
Q

How is vaginal prolapse treated?

A

Epidural and clean and repair any damage

232
Q

How is vaginal prolapse retained?

A

Trusses and harnesses.

Sutures – purse string using Buhner’s technique using tape/mattress sutures

233
Q

What must be considered before undertaking reproductive surgery in ruminants?

A

Handling and restraint facilities
Environment
Surgical procedure
Patient and assistant(s)
Under cover/outdoors
Sheltered from the prevailing wind/rain
Protection from dust
Lighting

234
Q

When should a ruminant be transported to a more appropriate environment before undertaking reproductive surgery?

A
  • Surgical site is heavily contaminated pre-op
  • Preparation is time-consuming
  • High likelihood of contamination
  • Need for perioperative antibiotics
235
Q

What anaesthesia can be used for ruminant reproductive surgery?

A
  • Local infiltration
  • Paravertebral (T13 to L2 +/- L3)
    Epidural (L6-S1 or C1-2)
  • Procaine with adrenaline
236
Q

What is the speed of onset of local anaesthetic techniques for ruminant reproductive surgery?

A

5-15 mins (local infiltration, paravertebral, epidural)

237
Q

What analgesia is used in ruminant reproductive surgeries?

A

Pre-emptive NSAIDs. Carprofen, flunixin meglumine, ketoprofen, meloxicam licensed in cattle.

No licenced opioids in food producing animals

238
Q

Describe responsible use of antibiotic therapy for ruminant reproductive surgery.

A
  • Infection status
  • Risk of contamination
  • Likely bacteria present mean we need a broad spectrum to cover all basis
  • Resistance
  • Culture/sensitivity – unlikely
  • Route of administration
  • Duration of treatment
239
Q

What are the 1st generation antibiotics that can be given to ruminants for reproductive surgery?

A

For 3-5 days
- Aminopenicillins
- Early generation cephalosporins
- Tetracyclines

240
Q

How do you prepare ruminants for reproductive surgery?

A
  • Secure the tail in cattle
  • High level of contamination so wide clip area - consider whether externalisation of viscera will be necessary, generally a 25cm margin sufficient
  • Surgical scrub – 2 bucket rule
241
Q

Why can access be challenging in ruminant reproductive surgery?

A
  • Large abdominal size
  • Cranial extension of the abdominal cavity beneath the rib cage
  • Short mesenteries and omenta
  • Rumen obstructs left flank
242
Q

What must be considered for caesarean sections?

A
  • Contamination risk – calf dead/alive
  • Previous surgeries
  • Timing of intervention
  • Reason for surgery
243
Q

Why may a caesarean section be needed in ruminants?

A
  • Foetomaternal disproportion
  • Malpresentation
  • Insufficient dilation of cervix
  • Elective
244
Q

What anaesthesia is used in ruminant caesarean sections?

A

Paravertebral – anaesthetises the whole straining, allows extension of the incision if required

Caudal epidural optional extra – reduces abdominal straining but risk of ataxia, 2ml LA max

245
Q

What are some possible additional pre-operative considerations for ruminant caesarean sections?

A
  • Clenbuterol relaxes uterus for better access and manipulation
  • Preparation for resuscitation
  • Tie a long rope to the contralateral HL
  • Use of sedation – but xylazine cause uterine contraction so can make the uterus harder to handle
246
Q

Describe the approach to the left sided paralumbar fossa laparotomy in cattle.

A
  • Rumen easier to manipulate than distal GIT
  • Minimises egress of viscera and abdominal contamination
247
Q

Describe the approach to the paralumbar fossa laparotomy in cattle.

A
  • Incise ½ way between last rib and stifle
  • Large dorsoventral incision 40 cm to avoid trauma to the incision while manipulating the uterus
248
Q

Outline the process of a paralumbar laparotomy in cattle.

A
  1. Identify and incise muscle layers individually
  2. The transverse abdominal muscle and peritoneum should be tented with a forceps and a cut made carefully into the abdomen.
  3. A sharp hiss heard
  4. Extend the incision dorsally and ventrally
  5. Determine calf position and identify the closest HL in anterior/FL in posterior presentation
  6. Incise uterus outside abdomen to decrease contamination over plantar metatarsus and hock
  7. Pull calf dorsally and caudally
  8. Check for second calf
249
Q

How is a calf revived?

A

Straw up nose, cold water down ears, acupuncture site – small needle in nasal septum

250
Q

How is a paralumbar laparotomy closed in cattle?

A

Uterine closure - continuous inverting in 2 layers, 5/6 metric synthetic absorbable, remove clots from wall to minimise adhesions

Abdominal closure - layers 1 to 3 simple continuous suture with absorbable, skin with ford interlocking non-absorbable

251
Q

What is the aftercare necessary for the mother after a paralumbar laparotomy in cattle?

A
  • Continue NSAIDs
  • Continue antibiotic
  • Oxytocin to allow uterus to contract again
  • Give oral fluids if required
  • Phone or visit the next day/day after to see how getting on – beware peritonitis occurs at least 3 days later
  • Stitches out 14 days
252
Q

What are the possible post-operative complications of paralumbar laparotomy in cattle?

A
  • Retained foetal membranes
  • Metritis, peritonitis, wound infection
  • Severe adhesions
  • Reduced fertility
253
Q

When is a left ventrolateral laparotomy indicated?

A

Useful for dead emphysematous foetus

254
Q

What are the benefits of a left ventrolateral laparotomy?

A

Improved uterine exposure and reduced contamination of abdomen

255
Q

What is the approach to a left ventrolateral laparotomy?

A
  • Requires right lateral recumbency and elevated left hind limb
  • Closure is more involved and prolonged
  • Assistance preferred as it is more difficult
256
Q

Why is disbudding preferred to dehorning?

A
  • Less stressful for the calf and the vet
  • Improved local anaesthesia
  • Fewer complications
  • Reduced risk of horn regrowth
257
Q

What is the legislation of dehorning?

A
  • Only a vet may carry out the procedure in cattle over 2 months of age
  • Only a vet can dehorn or disbud a sheep or goat – except the trimming of the insensitive tip of an ingrowing horn
  • Local anaesthetic (LA) must be used
258
Q

What anaesthesia is used for dehorning?

A

Cornual nerve block with/without accessory nerve for a minimum 10 minutes. NSAIDs recommended

259
Q

What does a disbudding iron do?

A

Haemostasis, destroy horn producing tissue

260
Q

What are the complications of dehorning?

A
  • Inadequate anaesthesia
  • Haemorrhage
  • Sinusitis
  • Fly strike
  • Regrowth
261
Q

What anaesthesia is used for castration?

A
  • Local infiltration
  • Epidural – lumbo-sacral L6-S1
  • Sedation (xylazine) – mature bulls, aggressive or difficult to handle animals, safe handling
  • GA – adult boars or pot-bellied breeds. Restraint and allow closure of the inguinal ring to prevent herniation
262
Q

How do you administer local anaesthetic for castration into the testes?

A
  1. Inject 5 to 10 ml of 5% procaine directly into the stroma of the testicles using a 19 gauge, 2.5 cm needle
  2. Due to the inelastic vaginal tunic that surrounds the stroma, this method is potentially painful to the patient
263
Q

How do you administer local anaesthetic for castration into the spermatic cord?

A
  1. Inject 5 to 10 ml of 5% procaine into each spermatic cord at the neck of the scrotum using a 19 gauge, 2.5 cm needle
  2. Draw back needle to check you are not in the blood vessels there
  3. This method is less painful and the anaesthetic acts more quickly
264
Q

How is castration done with bloodless castration using elastrator rings?

A

Calves/lambs < 7days old. Place ring at the neck of the scrotum

265
Q

What are the possible complications of bloodless castration using elastrator rings?

A

Unilateral or failed castration due to retraction
Failure of the elastrator ring
Dehiscence
Infection

266
Q

When is bloodless castration using burdizzo indicated?

A

Poor environmental hygiene or in fly season, farms with history of complications with open castration,

267
Q

How is a bloodless castration done with a burdizzo?

A
  • Apply proximal to testes
  • Clamp 4 times and hold for at least 10s
  • 2nd application made proximal to the first
  • Each cord should be crushed separately with the crush lines staggered to prevent interruption of blood supply to the scrotal skin
268
Q

What are the possible complications of bloodless castration using a burdizzo?

A

Incomplete castration due to failure to occlude vas deferens
Accidental crushing of urethra (fatal)
Sloughing of the scrotal skin

269
Q

How can surgical castration be done?

A

Using traction and torsion or using emasculators

270
Q

What method of castration is used for cattle under 6 months, 6-12 months and over 12 months of age?

A

Under 6 months - torsion and traction

6-12 months - torsion and traction, emasculators

Over 12 months - emasculators with/without ligation

271
Q

Outline how to surgically castrate using torsion and traction?

A
  1. Make a bold J shaped incision through the scrotal skin
  2. Carefully cut the vaginal tunic
  3. Digitally break down the ligament attaching the vaginal tunic to the testis distally leaving only the vascular attachments
  4. Twist the testicle ensuring the twists move up the vascular cord around 25-50 times
  5. Care not to entrap hair or vaginal tunic into cord
  6. Pull firmly on the cord until it breaks
272
Q

Outline how to surgically castrate using emasculators.

A
  1. Make a bold J shaped incision through the scrotal skin
  2. Apply emasculator to spermatic cord either open vaginal tunic or close vaginal tunic
  3. Apply “nut to nut” for a minimum of two minutes so that lamp is above cutting edge
  4. Crush the vasculature separately from the vas-deferens, with/without proximal ligature
273
Q

What are the possible complications of surgical castration?

A

Haemorrhage
Infection
Abscessation
Fly strike
Tetanus
Eventration - abdominal contents coming through vas deferens, big risk in pigs so treat like SA and close up inguinal ring in pigs
Adhesions

274
Q

What is a vasectomy and when it is done?

A
  • Performed to produce teaser males
  • Removal of a segment of the ductus deferens
275
Q

What local anaesthesia is used for a vasectomy?

A

Lumbosacral epidural – preferred, provides good analgesia and relaxation

Local infiltration – line block along neck of scrotum

276
Q

Outline the approach to a vasectomy.

A
  1. 3 cm skin incision is made in cranial scrotum over the spermatic cord
  2. Spermatic cord is bluntly dissected and exteriorised
  3. Place closed artery forceps to isolate spermatic cord
  4. Identify the ductus deferens – medial aspect of the spermatic cord, white and glistening
  5. The ductus deferens is clamped and ligated
  6. 3-4 cm is resected and removed
  7. Routine skin closure with absorbable sutures
  8. Repeated for the other side
277
Q

What should you warn the farmer about with vasectomisation?

A
  • Not a 100% procedure and re-canalisation occasionally occurs
  • Allow minimum 2 weeks to relapse before the bull/ram is introduced to any fertile females
278
Q

How do you treat post partum haemorrhage in cattle?

A

Ligate, clamp, pack or oxytocin

279
Q

How may a cow get post partum vaginal or uterine tears?

A

Associated with dystocia, excessive traction, large calves. May be associated with profuse post-calving arterial haemorrhage from vulva

280
Q

How are post partum vaginal and uterine tears treated?

A
  • Identify bleeding vessel and clamp with artery forceps
  • Stitch vaginal tears
  • If large uterine tear, consider salvage slaughter or repair via laparotomy
281
Q

How can post partum vaginal and uterine tears be prevented?

A
  • Avoid foeto-maternal disproportion, over-fat cows at calving and excessive traction
  • Consider episiotomy
282
Q

What may uterine prolapse be associated with?

A

Prolonged parturition
Straining
Hypoglycaemia, as this causes uterine inertia and uterus doesn’t contract and cervix doesn’t close

283
Q

Why might a cow be down post partum?

A

Exhaustion
Shock
Hypocalcaemia
Pelvic nerve damage

284
Q

How should you manage and treat a uterine prolapse?

A
  • Intravenous calcium
  • Sternal recumbency with hind legs pulled back which tilts pelvis forward
  • Caudal epidural
  • Clean uterus and remove placenta and put on a plastic feed back
  • If there is a tear, suture up first before putting back in
  • Replace uterus using firm manual pressure with closed fist, fingers will go through
  • Fully invert
  • Consider giving antibiotics for 3-4 days
  • Give NSAID, oxytocin and Ca injections
285
Q

What must be considered with Buhner’s sutures?

A

Do not tie so tight that they can’t urinate or pass foetal membranes. Do not rely on this keeping uterus in.

286
Q

What does gluteal nerve paralysis present as?

A

Weakness in hind limbs or inability to stand after calving

287
Q

What does obturator nerve paralysis present as?

A

Legs tend to splay laterally when weight-bearing. Involuntary abduction of limb

288
Q

What does sciatic nerve paralysis present as?

A

Dragging leg

289
Q

What does tibial nerve paralysis present as?

A

Hock is lowered and over-flexed

290
Q

What does peroneal nerve paralysis present as?

A

Digit is knuckled over onto dorsum

291
Q

How long do uterine contractions last post partum?

A

A few days

292
Q

How long does it take for uterine involution post partum?

293
Q

What happens to the cervix post partum?

A

Constricts rapidly

294
Q

What are the factors affecting normal uterine involution?

A

Parity
Retained placenta
Uterine infection
Twins
Hypocalcaemia
Selenium deficiency
Suckling frequency
Dystocia
Climate (especially heat stress)
Hydrops

295
Q

What events occur post partum in the cow’s cycle?

A
  1. Uterine involution
  2. Regeneration of endometrium
  3. Elimination of bacterial contamination of uterus
  4. Return of cyclical ovarian activity
296
Q

What is LOCHIA?

A

Discharge for 7-10 days, reddish brown and odourless

297
Q

Why is there an opportunity for bacterial contamination at calving?

A

At calving and immediately post-partum the vulva is relaxed and the cervix is open, so there is an opportunity for environmental bacteria to colonise the uterus.

298
Q

How does acute metritis or chronic endometritis interfere with fertility?

A
  • Directly killing gametes or conceptus
  • Altering the uterine ‘milk’
  • Causing endometritis (generating toxic products, inducing luteolysis)
  • Causing chronic histological lesions (metritis, pyometra, salpingitis)
  • Delaying onset of ovarian cyclicity (with or without the formation of ovarian cysts)
299
Q

How is acute metritis treated?

A

Broad spectrum antibiotic (local and/or systemic)
IV fluids and NSAIDs if toxic
Removal of RFM with great care (contraindicated here)

300
Q

What can happen in sequalae to post partum acute metritis?

A

Secondary ketosis
Hypocalcaemia
Displaced abomasum
Chronic endometritis
Salpingitis
Adhesions
Bacteriaemia leading to endocarditis and pulmonary abscessation

301
Q

What are the clinical signs of post partum acute metritis?

A

Anorexia
Milk drop
Pyrexia
Foul smelling vulval discharge

302
Q

What does endometritis present as?

A

Mucopurulent vaginal discharge, 21 days or more after calving and associated with delayed uterine involution. The cow is not ill. Farmers call it “whites” - a purulent discharge

303
Q

What are the predisposing factors of chronic endometritis?

A
  • Negative energy balance/ketosis
  • Dystocia/assisted calving
  • Retained foetal membranes
  • Dirty calving environment
  • Premature calving-twins, induced calving
  • Delay in return of post-partum cyclicity
  • Overfat at calving/fatty liver
  • Nutritional deficiency e.g. Selenium
304
Q

How can chronic endometritis be diagnosed?

A
  • Persistent purulent vulval discharge “whites” evident at 3-4 weeks post calving
  • Tacky discharge stuck to tail
  • May be seen following oestrus when cervix opens
  • Vaginal examination manual or speculum
  • Rectal examination confirmed by ultrasound
305
Q

How can chronic endometritis be treated?

A
  • Prostaglandin injection (PGF2α) – repeat treatment in 10-14 days if “whites” persist.
  • Intra-uterine antibiotics
  • Saline washout
  • Antiseptic wash-out (not licensed) Lugol’s iodine or Chlorhexidine
  • Oestrogens (no longer licensed and illegal in EU)
  • Self-cure
306
Q

How can chronic endometritis be prevented?

A
  • Minimise dystocia
  • Good general calving hygiene
  • Avoid overfat cows/fat mobilisation syndrome
  • Ensure adequate mineral/vitamin supplementation
  • Amounts to good dry cow management
307
Q

What is pyometra associated with?

A

Persistent CL and closed cervix

308
Q

How does pyometra present in cattle?

A

Distended uterine horn
Uterine wall is thick, but no membrane slip, no placentomes and no foetus palpable

309
Q

What is the aetiology of pyometra?

A
  • Failure of normal separation of foetal cotyledonary villi from maternal caruncles
  • Primary or secondary uterine inertia
  • Failure of breakdown of the acellular layer between the foetal and maternal epithelial layers, which is a chemical change but is assisted by uterine motility
310
Q

What are the predisposing factors of pyometra?

A
  • Premature parturition – twin births, late abortions, induced births
  • Oedema of chorionic villi caused by dystocia, caesarean or following uterine torsion
  • Placentitis cause by abortion agents
  • Uterine inertia due to hypocalcaemia or twins
311
Q

What are the clinical signs of pyometra?

A
  • Putrid placenta hanging from vulva but, may be retained in cervix/ vagina and not obvious from outside
  • Cow may strain
  • Usually not ill unless acute metritis develops
312
Q

What can happen in sequalae to pyometra?

A

Spontaneous expulsion in 5-10 days with no treatment

313
Q

What is cystic ovarian disease in cows?

A

A cystic follicle is defined as an anovulatory follicle-like structure (greater than 2 cm in diameter) that may persist on the ovary (usually for more than 10 days) with or without the presence of a corpus luteum.

314
Q

How can cysts be further classified?

A
  • Follicular cyst - thin-walled, non-progesterone-producing
  • Luteinised/luteal cyst - thicker-walled, progesterone-producing
  • Non-hormone producing cyst
315
Q

How can cysts and corpus lutea be distinguished on ultrasound?

A

Many normal CLs have fluid filled centres/lacunae visible on ultrasound scan – these are not cysts.

316
Q

What is the consequence of luteal cysts?

A

Luteal cyst producing progesterone so administer PG to destroy luteal tissue.

317
Q

What is the consequence of follicular cysts?

A

Produce oestrogen = keep having oestrous behaviour/nymphomania

318
Q

Why might an LH surge fail?

A
  • Stress – cortisol can block or delay normal LH surge or may alter LH receptor activity at follicular level.
  • Metritis/endometritis – endotoxin production from uterus can cause cortisol release which interferes with ovulation
  • Other dietary deficiencies plant-based oestrogens in diet (probably not in UK)
319
Q

What are the predisposing factors of cystic ovarian disease?

A
  • Arises as an interaction between an hereditary predisposition, stress, milk yield, age, season of the year and plane of nutrition
  • Ketosis, dystocia, twin births, RFM and MF
320
Q

Distinguish the clinical signs of follicular and luteinised cysts.

A

Follicular – irregular or recurrent oestrous behaviour or anoestrus

Luteinised cysts – anoestrus

321
Q

How is cystic ovarian disease diagnosed?

A
  • Rectal Palpation – if thick walled structure, likely to be luteinised cyst
  • Milk/blood Progesterone Analysis: follicular cyst leading to low milk progesterone, luteinised cyst leading high milk progesterone
  • Ultrasound
  • Behaviour
322
Q

How is GnRH/hCG used to treat cystic ovarian disease?

A

GnRH given exogenously should result in FSH and LH release, but doesn’t bring ovulation about with cysts but brings about follicular to luteal tissue change and then given PGF2a to destroy luteal tissue.

323
Q

How is PGF2-a used to treat cystic ovarian disease?

A

Exogenous IM, short half-life as it goes through lung, uses counter current uterus to ovary and destroys luteal tissue. Also cause smooth muscle constriction in the lung in humans and can cause abortions in pregnant people, so handle carefully. Only luteal cysts.

324
Q

How is progesterone used to treat cystic ovarian disease?

A

PRID/CIDR for 12 days, release progesterone to mimic a CL, feeds back to hypothalamus to switch of GnRH release. Removing the device then removes the negative feedback which allows GnRH release and then FSH and LH and ovulation will occur. Can treat both follicular and luteal cysts.

325
Q

When does the first post partum ovulation occur in dairy and beef suckler cattle?

A

Dairy - 1st pp ovulation normally occurs within 20-30 days

Beef suckler - 1st pp ovulation normally occurs within 20-60 days

326
Q

What happens if the dominant follicle fails to ovulate?

A

It will become atretic or occasionally become cystic

327
Q

Why is there is a delay in first ovulation between dairy and beef suckler cows?

A

Delay in sufficient LH pulse frequency rather than FSH problem. Suckling effect

328
Q

What are the nutritional effects of anoestrous?

A
  • Inadequate energy intake in late pregnancy/early ppp, due to suppression of LH pulse frequency
  • Negative energy balance affects levels of
  • Insulin and growth hormone
    anoestrus due to excess molybdenum or sulphur in the diet
329
Q

How does suckling cause anoestrous?

A

Frequency and duration of suckling affects LH output via opioid release interfering with GnRH output in hypothalamus.

330
Q

What could cause anoestrous?

A

Nutritional
Suckling
Seasonal effects
Delayed uterine involution
Cystic ovarian disease
Persistent corpus lutea - uterine infection
High yielding dairy cow
Heifers still under nutritional stress

331
Q

What is needed to diagnose anoestrous?

A
  • Palpate/scan 2 small hard ovaries with no CL or large follicles, with similar rectal finding in 10-14 days
  • Have 2 low milk progesterone values recorded 10 days apart
332
Q

How is anoestrous treated?

A
  • Management changes
  • Progesterone releasing devices
  • Single dose of GnRH
333
Q

How is a single prostaglandin injection used to treat oestrous not observed?

A

If a CL, give PG. When CL is destroyed is predictable but ovulation is not due to where they are in the follicular phase.

334
Q

How is a double prostaglandin injection used to treat oestrous not observed?

A

To synchronise oestrous. About half may have a CL so PG will induce oestrous, those who don’t will have no effect. 11 days later, all will be in luteal phase. You can synchronise ovulation without observing oestrous

335
Q

How is Ovsynch used to treat oestrous not observed?

A

1st injection in GnRH for effect on follicular wave. If there are dominant follicles, they will ovulate and follicular waves will be synchronised. Then give them PGF2a to destroy CL, so all come back into oestrous close together by synchronising follicular wave and luteolysis. 56 hours later, another GnRH to induce ovulation to synchronise further

336
Q

How are CIDR and PRID plus PGF2a used to treat oestrous not observed?

A

If you put in a device and there is a still a CL present 10 days later, PGF2a then given 2 days before you remove it, so that there is no natural progesterone.

337
Q

What is the effect of GnRH given on the day of service (holding injection)?

A
  • Some cows may have delayed ovulation relative to standing oestrus
  • GnRH given at oestrus also improves subsequent luteal function
338
Q

What is the effect of GnRH given at day 11-12 post service?

A

At day 11-12 post AI or more economically can be targeted on cows that are stressed or return to service

339
Q

What is given at 12 days post service to improve fertility?

A

Chorionic gonadotrophin

340
Q

How are CIDR and PRID used to enhance fertility?

A

Inserted at day 5 and removed at day 12 enhances fertility in some cases

341
Q

What is a repeat breeder cow?

A

Cow that fails to become pregnant following 3 or more consecutive serves at normal inter-oestrus intervals

342
Q

What are the causes of repeat breeders?

A
  • Statistical chance related to herd pregnancy rate
  • Failure of fertilisation
  • Early embryonic death
  • Failure of sufficient bTP-1 production from embryo leading to failure of maternal recognition of pregnancy
343
Q

How are repeat breeder cows treated?

A
  • If thin improve condition
  • If lame treat
  • Try experienced inseminator or put in with a bull to reduce reliance on oestrous signs
  • Try ‘holding injection’ (GnRH) – at beginning of standing oestrus and also day 11 post insemination.
344
Q

What are the possible causes of stillbirths in cattle?

A

Dystocia/anoxia
Hypocalcaemia
Twinning
Iodine deficiency
Vitamin E/selenium

345
Q

How can dystocia be recognised as the cause of stillbirth?

A

Head and tongue is swollen due to affected venous return by constriction round the head so is a sign of dystocia/anoxia
Infection pre-partum

346
Q

What causes corneal opacity following stillbirths?

A

Water being absorbed from the amnion through the cornea leading to oedematous cornea

347
Q

How are stillbirths prevented against?

A
  • Multifactorial
  • Bull selection
  • Cow nutrition
  • Supervision of labour
  • Exercise dams
  • Induction or delay of parturition
  • CCTV
348
Q

Distinguish neonatal effect of normal and abnormal delivery.

A

Normal delivery results in temporary acidosis

Abnormal delivery results in severe acidosis

349
Q

What are the characteristics of acute neonatal respiratory distress syndrome?

A
  • Decreased surfactant, severe respiratory distress
  • Broken ribs or other trauma
  • Inhalation of meconium
  • Congenital defects
350
Q

How is acute neonatal respiratory distress syndrome treated?

A
  • Increase oxygen via a nasal tube
  • Doxapram – respiratory stimulant
  • Careful nursing including administration of colostrum
351
Q

What causes alveolar collapse in neonatal acute respiratory distress syndrome?

A

Proteinaceous deposit in lungs

352
Q

What is ventricular septal defect?

A

Most common shunting left to right

353
Q

What are the clinical signs of ventricular septal defect in calves?

A
  • Decreased exercise tolerance
  • Listlessness
  • Systolic murmur on both sides of chest
  • Acute heart failure and pulmonary oedema
354
Q

Distinguish smaller and larger cardiac defects.

A

Smaller defect is more likely to give you the louder murmur. A very small VSD may close and can have them without any issue to health. Larger ones will have affect on functionality.

355
Q

What are the factors affecting transfer of colostral antibodies?

A

Poor maternal nutrition
Parity
Pre-partum leakage/milking
Premature calving
Movement of dam in late pregnancy
Interval from calving to removal of calf
Maternal and calf behaviour
Inadequate mothering
Failure of calf to suck

356
Q

What is the duration of action of colostrum in calves?

A

Colostrum has an in utero immune response from 120 days. Colostrum derived immunoglobulin, transfer from plasma to colostrum over 2 months.

357
Q

What are the humoral immune factors in colostrum?

A

Complement
Lysozyme
Lactoferrin
Interferon
Acute phase protein
Lactoperoxidase

358
Q

What are the dam factors affecting immunoglobulin concentration yield in colostrum?

A
  • Increases yield causing decreased quality of parity heifers
  • Decreased quality and quantity of breed
  • IgG transfer starts earlier in heifers (older cows increase IgG2 levels) quarter increased quality in hind quarters
359
Q

What are the management factors affecting the immunoglobulin concentration of colostrum?

A
  • Time after parturition is greater than 9 hours
  • Length of dry period
  • Prepartum milking
  • Vaccination
  • Induction
  • Feeding – no effect on Ig concentration, effects yield, B.C.S. poor condition causing poor quality and quantity
360
Q

How much colostrum should calves receive?

A

10% body weight in first 6 hours of life

361
Q

What is the outcome of under 10, 10-20 and over 20 zinc sulphate turbidity test units?

A

< 10 = septicaemia/diarrhoea, high mortality

10-20 = diarrhoea, variable mortality

> 20 = healthy/transient diarrhoea

362
Q

What is bovine neonatal pancytopaenia?

A

Thrombocytopaenia
Alloimmune syndrome caused by vaccine-induced alloreactive antibodies

363
Q

What are the clinical signs of colisepticaemia?

A

Sudden death – or dull, stiff, reluctant to rise and feed

Subnormal – pyrexia 40.5C, collapse, diarrhoea (terminal), CNS signs , swollen joints, death in less than 12 hour or leading to septic polyarthritis, multiple abscesses, meningitis. Elevated heart rate

Calves that get this tend to get endotoxic shock leading to DIC C.V. collapse hypogammaglobulinaemic causing decreased immunoglobulins

364
Q

While usually ineffective, how is colisepticaemia treated?

A
  • IV fluids
  • NSAIDs – flunixin has an antiendotoxic effect
  • Antibiotics – don’t have time to figure out which bacteria is causing infection and calves are succumbing to environmental bacteria. So use those that are good at getting through BBB – florfenicol, amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, trimethoprim/sulphonamide, enrofloxacin.
365
Q

How is colisepticaemia controlled?

A

Colostrum
Cleanliness
Reduce obstetrical problems
Dip navel
Management of cow and calf

366
Q

When does bacterial meningitis occur in calves?

A

Sequel to bacteraemia in hypogammaglobulinaemic calves

367
Q

What are the CNS signs of bacterial meningitis in calves?

A
  • Depressed
  • Hypopyon – pus in anterior chamber of the eyes (eyes are the extension of the brain so if pus in eye, likely in brain), not be confused with cataract (cloudiness in lens)
  • Opisthotonus – rigid and have head right back
  • Blindness
  • Paddling/convulsions
  • Coma
368
Q

How is bacterial septicaemia treated in calves?

A
  • Antibiotics
  • Anticonvulsants
  • Drugs must cross blood CSF barrier
  • Nursing
  • Good colostral transfer to prevent
369
Q

Which bacteria could cause bacterial polyarthritis in calves?

A

Trueperella pyogenes
Fusobacterium necrophorum
Staphylococcus species
Streptococcus species
Escherichia coli
Salmonella

370
Q

How can bacterial polyarthritis lead to paraplegia in calves?

A

If gets into joints/vertebral discs, can get into bone, spine can collapse = paraplegic calf/lamb

371
Q

What are the clinical signs of omphalophlebitis/polyarthritis?

A
  • Hot, painful, swollen joints
  • Lameness, recumbent
  • Dull, pyrexic, anorexic
  • Swollen painful navel/purulent discharge
372
Q

How is omphalophlebitis/polyarthritis diagnosed?

A
  • Synovial fluid culture and analysis
  • Radiology
373
Q

What is the aim of treatment when treating omphalophlebitis/polyarthritis?

A

Often ineffective due to welfare implications. Aim is to remove destructive enzymes, eliminate infectious agents, decreased inflammation and pain.

374
Q

Why is rapid treatment required for polyarthritis?

A
  • Synovitis and necrosis leading to destructive enzymes
  • Decreased glycosam inoglycans and proteoglycans
  • Cartilage destruction and osteomyelitis
375
Q

How is polyarthritis treated in calves?

A
  • Broad spectrum antibiotics for at least 2 weeks, must have good tissue perfusion, acid intra-articular environment
  • Joint drainage – arthrotomy/arthroscopy
  • Joint rest via NSAIDs
376
Q

What is the aetiology of navel and joint ill in calves?

A

Bacteraemia/septicaemia arising from navel or chronic neonatal septicaemia

377
Q

List the possible clinical scenarios of navel and joint ill in calves.

A
  • Abcessation of navel only
  • Spread from navel into falciform ligament
  • Spread along urachus
  • Peritonitis
  • Haematogenous spread to single or multiple joints
378
Q

How should you treat navel and joint ill calves?

A
  • Broad spectrum antibiotics until culture results available
  • In navel-ill surgical excision
  • Large abscesses can be lanced, flushed and allowed to granulate
  • Joint lavage often useful
379
Q

How should navel and joint ill be prevented against?

A

Adequate colostrum
Treatment of navel at birth
Separate navel suckers from other calves

Clinical Veterinary Science and One Health 23/24 (36 decks)

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