Bookmark Flashcards
Effects of ADH/vasopressin
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) for inc reabsorption of water in collecting ducts of kidneys –> CHANGE BLOOD OSMOLARITY, inc plasma osmolarity, inc solute conc in blood
Central chemoreceptors vs peripheral chemoreceptors vs mechanoreceptors
Central chemoreceptors neighbor around resp center in brain, carry info about CO2 and pH vs peripheral chemoreceptors are outside the brain, carry info about O2, CO2 and pH vs carry info about pressure, touch, sound and motion
Hydrostatic vs oncotic pressure
Pressure of fluid within blood vessel, pushes fluid out of arteriole end of capillary; low hydrostatic pressure means blood is moving thru capillary vs “sucking” pressure that draws water towards solutes, draws fluid out back to venule end of capillary
What are glial cells/neuroglia? Examples? What type of tissue are they made of?
Structural support for neurons. astrocytes vs ependymal cells vs microglia vs oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells. Unmyelinated neural tissue
Starling Forces
What causes fluid movement into Bowman’s space. Takes account hydrostatic pressure and oncotic pressure (osmotic pressure induced by proteins)
Describe the structure of the lymphatic system
A bunch of vessels that carry lymph (fluid) and join together to make a thoracic duct; along the lymphatic vessels are lymph nodes (bean shaped structure) that give a place for immune cells to be exposed to pathogens
Lymphatic systems helps reduce edema by taking in excess fluid from interstitial spaces, can also carry proteins, dissolved solutes, and water from periphery to blood (in a way, this filters blood); they also have one way valves like veins, and is actively pumped by skel muscle contraction
What’s special about animal viruses?
only animal viruses (out of all viruses) have phospholipid envelopes, and they’re obligate intracellular parasites
Describe spermatogenesis
Formation of haploid sperm via meiosis that occurs in seminiferous tubules. After replicating genetic material (S stage), they become primary spermatocytes –> undergo meiosis I => haploid secondary spermatocytes –> meiosis II => haploid spermatids –> maturation => spermatozoa. Results in 4 functional sperm per spermatogonium
Describe oogenesis
Production of female gametes. At birth, females have diploid stem cells aka oogonia and undergo mitosis —> diploid oogonium + diploid primary oocytes which is arrested in prophase I => dictyate state; when reaching menarche, 1 primary oocyte per month undergoes meiosis I => secondary oocyte and polar body –> secondary oocyte is arrested in metaphase II and doesn’t continue meiosis II until fertilization
Retroviruses
Enveloped, ssRNA viruses that contain reverse transcriptase which makes DNA from ssRNA. That DNA is integrated into host’s genome and host replicates and transcribes it like its own DNA. Reverse transcription occurs in cytoplasm
Organs that are part vs not part of GI tract
mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestines, large intestines, anus vs liver, gallbladder, pancreas
What do ACE inhibitors generally do?
inhibit angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) –> helps w/ high bp and heart failure
What lab techniques would be used to find gene expression?
anything that can detect mRNA and/or proteins. not DNA (finding DNA would just mean if the gene is present or not as opposed to being expressed or not)
Tetany vs tonus vs twitch vs tremor vs frequency summation
continuous full contraction vs continuous partial contraction vs spasm vs involuntary quivering vs addition of multiple simple twitches before fully relaxing
How is elasticity of alveoli determined?
Pressure of fluid, not radius of airway (radius = determined by bronchioles)
What to do if a genetics problem asks “what are the chances of having 2 children w/ XYZ” from Punnet sq?
multiply chances by 2 (ex: if the child has 50% chance of getting XYZ, then having 2 children will result in 25% b/c 0.5*0.5=0.25)
Parts of endomembrane system
Golgi, ER, lysosomes, vacuoles, nuclear envelope, plasma membrane
Slowest blood vel vs fastest blood vel occur in which blood vessels?
Capillaries b/c they have higher cross sect area than arteries (they also have greatest surface area) to allow for gas and nutrient exchange vs aorta
What inhibits milk secretion before birth?
high estrogen and progesterone
What happens in birth?
Prostaglandins and oxytocin coordinate contractions from cervix stretching out or dec lvls of estrogen from placenta breaking down. Cervix thins out and amniotic sac ruptures (water breaks), increased uterine stretch –> inc uterine contractions, placenta and umbilical cord = expelled (afterbirth). Progesterone later inhibits contractions
hCG
hormone produced by trophoblast cells; its lvls = high in early pregnancy to maintain corpus luteum –> after 1st trimester, placenta = developed and hCG drops –> corpus luteum deteriorates, placenta maintains progesterone (and estrogen) to maintain pregnancy
Relaxing bronchi and relaxing smooth muscle occurs in what nervous system?
SNS
Examples of peptide neurotransmitters and how they’re produced
Endorphin, opioids. Their precursors & enzymes = axonally transported in vesicles
Which other organs secrete hormones?
Kidneys secrete erythropoietin to stimulate bone marrow to inc production of erythrocytes (RBC) in response to low oxygen in blood. Heart secretes atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) to regulate salt and water balance in response to excess blood volume and high bp, dilates afferent arteriole. Thymus secretes thymosin for T-cell development. Liver release insulin-like growth factors in response to GH
What does passive recoil of lung tissue do?
dec lung vol –> exhale completely
What are germinal centers in lymph nodes?
Where B cells can undergo somatic hypermutation (inc chance of mutation after ab binds to its specific ag) and affinity maturation (ab w/ greater affinity to its ag via somatic hypermutation are selected for; if weaker affinity –> apop) and proliferate
Complement system
innate immunity where proteins in blood act as nonspecific defense against bacteria –> punch holes in bacteria cell walls to make them osmotically unstable; activated thru 2 pathways: classical: Requires ab binding to ag, and alternative: doesn’t require ab
Clonal selection
B and T cells cloning themselves to generate specificity of ab against ag
What are microfilaments made of? What do they do?
Actin; they can use ATP to interact with myosin to generate movement (ex: muscle contraction)
assist in endocytosis, assist moving vesicles by pulling (but not pushing), participates in cytokinesis
What are neurotransmitters? Where are they stored? From where are they transmitted?
Molecules that carry info from neuron to neuron. Stored in synaptic vesicles. Neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine = transmitted from axons to synaptic cleft; NO and cannabinoid neurotransmitters = transmitted from dendrites to synaptic cleft => retrograde neutrotransmission
Hepatic portal system vs hypophyseal system vs renal portal system
When blood leaves capillary beds of gut thru hepatic portal vein before reaching capillary beds in liver vs When blood leaves capillary beds of hypothalamus thru capillary beds in anterior pituitary to allow for paracrine secretion of releasing hormones vs When blood leaves glomerulus thru efferent arteriole before surrounding the nephron in a capillary network called vasa recta
What are 3 layers of blood?
Plasma aka serum (minus fibrinogen and clotting factors), WBCs & platelets, and RBCs
What are the 2 functional components of testes?
seminiferous tubules containing Sertoli cells that produce sperm, inhibin, and androgen-binding protein (that maintains testosterone lvls), and interstitial cells of Leydig that secrete testosterone and androgen
allantois and amnion
Allantois allows fluid exchange b/w yolk sac and embryo; amnion is a thin, tough membrane that surrounds allantois as shock absorber to lessen impact from maternal motion on developing embryo
Impulse propagation. Know how distance and cross sectional area of axon affects speed of action potential
When action potential travels along the axon. like fluid dynamics!: longer axon –> more resistance –> slower conduction, bigger cross sectional area –> less resistance –> faster conduction
When does neurulation occur? What is it? How does it occur?
After gastrulation; development of nervous system; rod of mesodermal cells make notochord (later developed into hollow dorsal nerve cord aka spinal cord) along long axis of organism –> overlying ectodermal cells slide inward to make neural folds which surround a neural groove –> neural folds grow toward each other until they fuse into a neural tube (which has alar plate that differentiates to sensory neurons and basal plate that differentiates to motor neurons) –> CNS, neural crest cells at tip of neural tube migrate away from origin sites —> give rise to PNS
Order of developing an embryo
Fertilization —> simultaneous cleavage and moving to endometrium —> morula + simultaneous cleavage and moving to endometrium —> blastula + implantation in endometrium —> gastrulation –> neurulation
Nerves vs tracts
Group of neurons carrying sensory, motor, and/or mixed info; together they make up ganglia in PNS vs group of axons carrying only 1 kind of info; together they make up nuclei in CNS
What’s the threshold value for action potential? What’s the resting membrane potential value?
-50 mV; -70 mV
What type of tissue is anterior pituitary made of?
Glandular tissue
How do dopamine and prolactin relate?
Dopamine secretion prevents prolactin release
What is thermoregulation? How is it regulated? What does resp system have to do with it?
Regulation of body temp. Heat = regulated by vasodilation or vasoconstriction. If blood vessels expand –> more blood goes through –> larger amounts of thermal energy can be dissipated; if blood vessels constrict –> less blood goes through –> thermal energy conserved. Resp system = highly vascular —> does vasodilation/constriction
How is aldosterone secreted?
Under renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system: low bp –> macula densa stimulate juxtaglomerular cells to dilate afferent arteriole —> secrete renin –> renin cleaves inactive plasma protein angiotensinogen into active angiotensin I –> angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II –> angiotensin II stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone —> aldosterone acts on distal nephrons —> inc Na+ reabsorption, inc K+ and H+ excretion. When bp = nml –> neg feedback for renin release. Aldosterone has nothing to do with hematocrit, does not change blood osmolarity
Parathyroid gland
Produce parathyroid hormone (PTH); does the exact opposite of calcitonin: raises Ca levels via dec Ca excretion from kidneys, inc Ca resorption in bone, inc Ca absorption in gut. Also does phosphorous homeostasis. And it activates vitamin D, which promotes Ca and phosphorous homeostasis
Does erythropoietin inc in high altitude or low altitude?
high
Portal triad vs hepatic lobules
hepatic portal vein, hepatic artery and bile duct vs hepatocytes surrounded by 6 units of portal triads like a hexagon; all blood = collected in central vein to hepatic vein
Cytokines
signaling molec that induce inflam during immune response, released by macrophages
Name 3 organs and 1 types of enzyme duodenum involves with
stomach (chyme, HCl), liver/gallbladder (bile salts and pigment), pancreas (enzymes), brush border enzymes (sucrase, lactase, isomaltase, aminonpeptidase and dipeptidase)
upper esophagus sphincter vs lower eso sphincter vs cardiac sphincter
swallows food (it’s made of skeletal muscle), involves oropharynx vs relaxes and opens passage for food vs prevents reflux of stomach contents into esophagus
functions of liver
storage of carbs, fats and proteins, detoxification, bile production via cholesterol, converting ammonia to urea, albumin synthesis, metabolism (ana/catabolism), DESTRUCTION OF ERYTHROCYTES
Nml flora in colon can produce what?
vit K
Do fat soluble cmpds meet in liver via portal vein?
Nope they don’t drain to liver at all. They meet in lacteals which form into thoracic duct which drains to the left subclavian vein
What part of nervous system controls gastrocolic reflex?
enteric nervous system
aminopeptidase vs dipeptidase
hydrolyzes at amino end vs hydrolyzes pairs of aa
Which substances can pass thru Bowman’s capsule?
Glucose, water and ions can pass thru, proteins can’t cuz too big for podocytes
High vs low urine osmolarity
High urine, low Na+ vs low urine, high Na+
Relationship b/w bp and filtration rate
Low bp means low filtration rate
How does blood vol affect bp?
Inc in blood vol —> inc in bp. Inc Na+ reabsorption (thanks to aldosterone) —> reduced water loss into urine —> inc in blood vol –> inc bp
What part of nervous system controls sweating?
Autonomic nervous system, mostly sympathetic
Flat bones vs long bones
ex: skull, ribs, pelvis; protects organs and hematopoiesis vs ex: femur, humerus; framework, movement, hematopoiesis in epiphysis. Both have inner spongy cancellous bones and and outer compact hard bones
Endochondral ossification vs intramembranous ossification
Hardening of cartilage transformed into bone like most long bones vs undifferentiated embryonic connective tissue (mesenchymal tissue) transformed into bone like the skull
What’s cartilage and describe 3 types? What about articular cartilage?
Avascular connective tissue secreted by chondrocytes. Hyaline - in larynx and trachea, reduce friction and absorb shock; elastic - in outer ear and epiglottis, shape and support; fibrous - intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis (where 2 pelvic bones meet in middle), rigidity and absorb shock. Articular cartilage - made up of hyaline cartilage that line the surfaces of bone in joints to prevent bones from making contact w/ e/o
Chondrocytes
Secrete fibrous materials like collagen and elastin that give cartilage its strength and flexibility (collagen = fibrous protein found in cartilage); derived from fibroblasts
What’s a joint and name 3 types?
where bone meets bone. Synarthroses - stiff/immoveable, skull; amphiarthroses - slightly stiff and a little moveable, intervertebral discs; diarthroses/synovial joints - contain synovium/synovial membrane that secrete synovial fluid (to lubricate joint movement) in joint/articulate cavity, the synovial capsule that surrounds the entire joint, ball and socket (moveable all around like shoulders and hips), hinge (moves in one plane like elbows and knees)
Can RNA polymerase proofread?
No
