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1
Q

Amygdala

A

determines if significant emotional content is detected

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2
Q

Hippcampus

A

crucial for establishing long term memories

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3
Q

Fear conditioning

A

an organism is given a warning stimulus and then a few seconds later, is presented with a fear-inducing stimulus

organism learns warning

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4
Q

What unites psychology?

A

shared set of thematic concerns

multiple perspectives

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5
Q

Limited value of dichotomies in psychology

A

nature vs nurture

biology vs environment

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6
Q

Active perceivers

A

humans interpret, select, and organize our experiences

by interpreting our activities we both help and hurt ourselves

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7
Q

Operational definition

A

a definition that translates a variable we want to assess into a specific procedure/measurement

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8
Q

Sample

A

can’t often study the whole population

subset of the population investigator studies

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9
Q

Random sampling

A

make sure sample represents the broader group

every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

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10
Q

External validity

A

the degree to which a study adequately reflects the world as it actually is

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11
Q

Demand characteristics

A

cues that might tell research participants what behaviors are expected/desirable in that setting

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12
Q

Descriptive statistics

A

characterize a data pattern

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13
Q

Inferential stats

A

allow researchers to draw claims between samples

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14
Q

Internal validity

A

experiment has properties that allow us to conclude that the change observed in the dependent variable was caused by the independent variable

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15
Q

Empirical claims

A

claims that can be true or false depending on the facts

what psychologists study

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16
Q

Naturalistic fallacy

A

idea anything natural must be good

sometimes traits can become harmful that were once beneficial

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17
Q

What type of behavior does evolution normally favor?

A

favors traits that produce flexibility in an organism’s behavior and ability to adapt

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18
Q

Intelligence

A

capacity that allows people to acquire new knowledge and use it to draw conclusions, solve problems, and adapt to circumstances

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19
Q

What did descarte believe?

A

that all human action is a response to something we experience

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20
Q

Neurons

A

specialized cell in nervous system that recieves and sends information

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21
Q

Efferent signals

A

Messages carries outward from central nervous system

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22
Q

Afferent neurons

A

nerves that carry messages inward towards the central nervous system

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23
Q

Glia

A

another type of cell in the nervous system that support neurons

increase the speed of neuronal communication

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24
Q

Excitation threshold

A

a signal has to surpass this threshold in order for the action potential to fire

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25
Q

Lock and key model

A

only certain neurotransmitters go with receptors

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26
Q

What nervous system are efferent and afferent nerves a part of?

A

perphereal nervous system

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27
Q

Cerebral cortex

A

outer surface of the forebrain

large, thin tissue that is folded

deep groves called convolutions divide the brain into different lobes of the brain

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28
Q

Projection areas

A

1st receiving areas for information going into and out of the brain

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29
Q

Contralateral organization

A

the idea that the right side of the body is controlled by the left hemisphere of the brain and vice versa

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30
Q

Plasticity of the brain

A

nervous system is plastic

subject to alteration in function

ex: overall changes to architecture after damage or neurons changing sensitivity to receptors

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31
Q

Active perceiver versus the passive perceiver

A

Active minds categorizes events and experiences

Passive perceiver is guided by proximal and distal stimulus

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32
Q

Absolute threshold

A

the smallest quantity of the stimulus that an individual can detect

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33
Q

Difference threshold

A

smallest amount the stimulus must be increased/decreased to be detected

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34
Q

Just noticeable difference

A

smallest difference an organism can reliably detect between 2 stimuli

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35
Q

Weber’s law

A

size of the difference threshold is proportional to the intensity of the standard stimulus

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36
Q

Fechner’s law

A

strength of sensation is proportional to the logarithm of physical stimulus intensity

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37
Q

Decision critera

A

an organism’s rule for how much evidence is needed before making a decision

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38
Q

Signal detection theory

A

theory that perceiving/not perceiving is actually a judgment about whether a momentary sensual experience is due to background noise alone or background and a signal

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39
Q

Demand characteristics

A

cues that might tell the research participant what behaviors are expected/desirable in that setting

can reduce through conducting a double blind experiment

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40
Q

Correlational studies

A

investigator analyzes relationships among variables that are already present (do not impose treatments)

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41
Q

Perceptual sensitivity

A

an organism’s ability to detect a signal

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42
Q

Sensory codes

A

the rules by which the nervous system translates the properties of a proximal stimulus to neural impulses

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43
Q

How is psycological intensity coded?

A

By rates of firing neurons and how many neurons are triggered

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44
Q

Specificity theory of sensation

A

different sensory qualities (ex: red vs green) are signaled by different neurons

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45
Q

Pattern theory of sensation

A

certain sensory qualities arise because of different patterns of activation across a whole set of neurons

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46
Q

What is a commonality among all sensory systems?

A

adaptation- the tendency to respond less to a stimuli that has been around and unchanging for some time

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47
Q

Vestibular sense

A

signals movements of head, sense of up/down

ex: semicircular canals in the inner ear

48
Q

Where is the taste sense found?

A

Papillae found on the tongue

49
Q

What does hearing depend on?

A

Place theory: experience of pitch is based on the membrane that is most stimulated

Frequency theory: experience of pitch depends on the firing frequency of the auditory nerve

Both of these theories play a role in hearing sense

50
Q

What controls the amount of light entering the eye?

A

Iris and lens

form the retinal image

51
Q

What is the distal stimuli for vision?

A

light that varies in intensity and wavelength

52
Q

Proximal stimuli for vision?

A

the retinal image

53
Q

What is the retina’s proximal stimulus translated by?

A

rods and cones

54
Q

Rods

A

operate at low light intensities and are indifferent to different hues

55
Q

Cones

A

operate at higher illumination and produce color

56
Q

Contrast effects

A

accentuate edges in vision??

57
Q

Opponent process theory

A

proposes that the output of the cones serves as input for a further layer of mechanisms that recode the signal into 3 opponent process pairs (R/G, B/Y, Black/White)

58
Q

Form perception

A

seeks what something is

begins with the detection of simple features

59
Q

What must the perceiver due besides simply recognizing features?

A

organize the info

must parse the visual scene and segragate figure from ground

60
Q

parvo cells

A

on the retina, are sensitive to color differences and are crucial for the perception of pattern+form

all different types of cells on the retina function at the same time

61
Q

Magno cells

A

color blind cells on the retina and play an essential role in motion detection and depth perception

all different types of cells on the retina function at the same time

62
Q

What happens to information from the visual cortex

A

It is translated to the temporal cortex (what system)

and parietal cortex (where system)

63
Q

Binding problem

A

the problem confronted by the brain of recombining elements of a stimulus, given that these elements are initially analyzed separately by different neural systems

ex: neurons detecting a vertical line and neurons detecting movement might assume it is the same object

64
Q

Perceptual consistency

A

people percieve a stable world even though there are changes in our circumstances that alter the stimuli

65
Q

Unconscious inference

A

taking the viewing circumstances (distance, angle) into account by performing simple calculations

66
Q

Distance perception

A

senses where something is

depends on various depth cues (binocular disparity and monocular cues) and motion helps us perceive depth

67
Q

Binocular disparity

A

a depth cue based on the differences between what the two eyes see

this difference becomes less pronounced with distance

68
Q

Monocular cues

A

features of the stimulus that indicate distance even if only viewed with one eye

ex: linear perspective

69
Q

Apparent movement

A

an abrupt change in location produces a perception of movement even though there has been no actual motion (in the world or in retinal)

70
Q

What happens when there is motion on the retina?

A

need to determine whether the motion was produced by movement in the environment or merely a change in viewing position

71
Q

Primed stimuli versus unprimed

A

Perception is more efficient if we are primed for the stimuli

Senses can prepare and prime the relevant detectors and processing pathways

72
Q

What is the benefit of the cognitive unconscious?

A

it allows us processes that are effortless and automatic

73
Q

Neural correlates of consciousness

A

activity of certain brain sites depends on what stimulus the person is aware of

74
Q

Global workspace hypothesis

A

consciousness is made possible by a pattern of integrated neural activity

made possible by the connections provided by the work-space neurons and controlled by the process of attention

75
Q

Sleep amounts

A

need equal amounts of slow wave and REM sleep

shown in EEG data

76
Q

Examples of depressants and stimulus

A

Depressants: alcohol, sleep medication, anxiety meds

Antidepressants: cocaine, caffeine, amphetamine, MDMA

77
Q

Extinction

A

non-reinforced response to conditioned stimulus started to decline

spontaneous recovery shows us that the conditioned response is masked, not abolished during extinciton

78
Q

Blocking effect

A

a result showing that an animal learns nothing about a stimulus if the stimulus does not present new information

79
Q

Is the conditioned response indentical to the unconditioned response?

A

Rarely

Most of the times the CR is a means of preparing for the US

80
Q

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

A

the tendency to perform a response is strengthened if it’s followed by a reward and weakened if it’s not

81
Q

Instrumental conditioned

A

the trainer delivers a reward of reinforcement only after the animal gives the appropriated response

another term for operant conditioning

82
Q

Are operants voluntary responses?

A

yes

voluntary responses just strengthened by conditioning

acquiring them may call for some initial shaping though

83
Q

partial reinforcement

A

the response is reinforced only some of the time

researcher implements reinforcement according to a schedule based on number of responses or intervals

84
Q

What is the neural basis for learning?

A

presynaptic facilitation and postsynaptic facilitation such as long-term potentation

also the creation of new synapses which is made possible by the growth of new dendritic spines

85
Q

long-term potentiation

A

A long-lasting increase in a neuron’s
response to specific inputs, caused by
repeated stimulation.

a neural basis for learning

86
Q

What are the three steps of memory

A

1) Acquisition - process of gathering info and placing into memory
2) Storage - holding information in some enduring form in the mind for latter use
3) Retrieval - draw info from storage to use

87
Q

What does memory acquisition include?

A

intentional learning and incidental learning

88
Q

How are long term memories stored?

A

memory consolidation process during which new connections form between neurons

need for consolidation is showcased in brain damage that disrupts this process and results in retrograde amnesia

89
Q

Encoding specifity

A

what’s stored in memory reflects how the person thought about or reacted to the object/event being remembered

90
Q

What are many cases of forgetting a result of?

A

inadequate encoding

91
Q

Schema

A

An individual’s mental
representation that summarizes her
knowledge about a certain type of event
or situation.

92
Q

Misinformation effect

A

people have a tendency to include misinformation as part of their recall of the original event

a type of intrusion error

93
Q

Intrusion errors

A

mixing of memories / having misinformation

intrusion errors are often produced when you learn about an event after the event was over

94
Q

2 separate systems for familarity and recollection

A

sometimes someone correctly realizes than an idea is familiar, but an error is made about why the idea is familar

ex: knowing that you have seen someone before but unsure where

95
Q

Semantic memories

A

concerns broader knowledge

96
Q

2 types of episodic memory

A

autobiographical (memory that defines each of us/who we are)

flashbulb memory

97
Q

Analogical versus symbolic representations

A

analogical representations capture some of the actual characteristics of what they represent (picture)

symbolic representations bear no such relationship to what they represent

98
Q

Judgment

A

drawing conclusions from experience

seek to reach beyond the evidence we’ve encountered to draw new claims based on this evidence

99
Q

What does judgment often rely on?

A

shortcuts called heuristics

100
Q

Dual process theory of thinking

A

System 1: thinking quickly in certain situations

System 2: thinking for slower, effortful, and more accurate thoughts

101
Q

Reasoning

A

drawing implications from our beliefs

crucial for using knowledge to test our beliefs

102
Q

What is a risk of reasoning?

A

Confirmation bias

103
Q

What type of reasoning do syllogisms show? What can syllogisms show?

A

Deductive reasoning

Can show confirmation bias

104
Q

Decision making

A

choices among options

people are sensitive to potential outcomes and risks associated with decisions

105
Q

Affective forecasting

A

predicting their own future emotions

people overestimate how strongly they will feel if an outcome is good or bad

106
Q

Is decision making better or worse with more options?

A

decision making is worse with more options

people like to be able to explain their process/ why they chose something over another thing

107
Q

Problem solving

A

a process that moves us from an initial state to a goal state and depends on how heavily we understand the problem

108
Q

Primary somatosensory projection area

A

adjacent areas in the motor projection area represent adjacent parts of the body; adjacent areas in visual projection area represent adjacent regions of space

areas of the body that receive the most touch receive most cortical space

109
Q

How to label left and right hemispheres?

A

If brain is pointed in same direction as yours, then left and right is same as your left and right

If brain is pointed towards you, then left and right are reversed

110
Q

Third variable problem

A

confounding found in correlationial studies

this problem can be removed through random assignment

111
Q

Within subject comparisons versus between-subject comparison

A

two different types of comparisons done in experiments

within-subject comparisons focus on the same group in 2 dif. environments

between-subject comparisons focus on 2 dif. groups

112
Q

Species general

A

all members of a species do it

ex: smiling

113
Q

Motor neurons

A

have long axons to carry efferent signals from the brain to the muscles

114
Q

Myelin

A

increased the speed of neuronal transmission

through glia cells often

115
Q

Antagonists versus agonists

A

Antagonists enhance cleanup enzymes to destroy neurotransmitter

agonists block cleanup enzymes

Psych 111 (6 decks)

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