Book: Ch. 1

Question 1

Political culture. Though the concept is somewhat open ended, states do often exhibit a distinctive culture that is the “product of their entire history.” Presumably the political culture of a state has an effect on how _____. Political scientist Daniel Elazar has created a classification scheme for state political cultures that is used widely. He uses the concepts of _____ to describe such cultures. These three state political cultures are contemporary manifestations of _____.

Answer 1

1. people participate in politics and how individuals and institutions interact
2. moralistic, individualistic, and traditionalistic
3. the ethnic, socioreligious, and socio- economic differences that existed among America’s original thirteen colonies

Question 2

According to Elazar, moralistic political cultures were rooted in _____. In such a culture, politics is the concern of _____, and government is expected to _____. Citizen participation in politics is viewed as _____; people are encouraged to _____ in civic activities.

Answer 2

1. New England, where Puritans and other religious groups sought to create the Good Society
2. everyone
3. take action to promote the public good and advance the public welfare
4. positive
5. pursue the public good

Question 3

Individualistic political cultures, on the other hand, originated in _____, where Americans sought _____. A state with an individualistic political culture generally places a _____ value on citizen participation in politics. Politics is a matter for _____ rather than for citizens, and the role of government is strictly limited. Government’s role is to _____.

Answer 3

1. the middle states
2. material wealth and personal freedom through commercial activities
3. low
4. professionals
5. ensure stability so that individuals can pursue their own interests

Question 4

Traditionalistic political culture developed initially in _____, reflecting the values of [the something economy and its successor] _____. Rooted in preindustrial values that emphasize _____, traditional culture is concerned with the preservation of _____. In such states, public participation is _____ and government is run by _____. Public policies _____ benefit the interests of those elites.

Answer 4

1. the South
2. the slave plantation economy (pre-1865) and its successor, the Jim Crow era (1876–1965)
3. social hierarchy and close interpersonal, often familial, relations among people
4. tradition and the existing social order
5. limited
6. an established elite
7. disproportionately

Question 5

States can, of course, have cultures that combine these concepts. One book classified Colorado, for example, as having a “moralistic” political culture. California was classified as having a “moralistic individualistic” political culture and New York an “individualistic moralistic” culture. New Jersey was classified as “individualistic” and Georgia “traditionalistic.” Florida and Kentucky were seen as “traditionalistic individualistic.” Often Texas is categorized as having a _____ political culture. Taxes are kept ____, and social services are _____. Political elites, such as business leaders, have _____ voice in how the state is run. In spite of the difficulty in measuring the concept of political culture in any empirical way, it is a concept widely regarded as useful in explaining fundamental beliefs about the state and the role of state government.

Answer 5

1. “traditionalistic individualistic”
2. low
3. minimized
4. a major

Question 6

The political culture of a state can change over time. Texas is undergoing dramatic changes, including some change in its political culture. It is also difficult to classify the political culture of a state as large and as diverse as Texas in any one category. In fact, Texas has _____ political cultures or subcultures within its borders.

Answer 6

1. many different

Question 7

Three long-lasting patterns in Texas politics seem to indicate a _____ state political culture. Indeed, political elites interested in limited government with low taxes and few social services _____ Texas politics today. It is also the case that at least some of these characteristics of state politics are undergoing rapid change. We examine these elements of Texas political culture below.

Answer 7

1. “traditionalistic individualistic”

2. dominate

Question 8

For over 100 years, Texas was dominated by the _____ Party. Winning the Democratic Party primary was tantamount to _____. As we will see in later chapters, this pattern no longer holds. During the 1990s substantial competition emerged between the parties for control of the state legislature. Following _____ the Republicans secured a 7-vote majority in the state Senate and a 24-vote majority in the state House. Between 2002 and 2014 all major statewide elected offices were controlled by _____. The question today is not whether the political culture of Texas will continue to be defined by a powerful Democratic Party, but how that culture will be redefined by two forces: [what two forces?] _____.

Answer 8

1. Democratic
2. winning the general election
3. redistricting in 2002
4. Republicans
5. a powerful Republican Party in most suburban and rural areas and a resurgent Democratic Party in Texas’s most urban counties

Question 9

A second pattern that once defined Texas political culture is provincialism: _____ [what does provincialism mean?]. The result often was _____ of diversity and a notion of the public interest that _____ social services and expenditures for education. Some of the more popular politicians in Texas have stressed _____ [related to provincialism] rather than policies that might offer advantages to the state as it competes with other states and with other nations. Like the one-party Democratic state, Texas provincialism has _____ as a defining feature of the political culture. _____ have all undercut Texas’s provincialism.

Answer 9

1. a narrow view of the world that is often associated with rural values and notions of limited government
2. an intolerance
3. dismissed
4. cornpone—a hickish rural rejection of modern urban lifestyles—intolerance, and a narrow worldview
5. faded
6. The growing influence of minorities, women, and gays in state politics, increasing urbanization, and Texas’s relevance in the global economy

Question 10

A third, continuing pattern that has helped define Texas’s political culture is its longtime dominance by _____. Labor unions are rare in Texas except in _____. Other groups that might offer an alternative to a business perspective, such as consumer interests, are _____ [why is their influence negligible compared to big business?]. Business groups are major players in Texas politics, in terms of _____ [how do they achieve their agenda in politics?].

Answer 10

1. business
2. the oil-refinery areas around Beaumont–Port Arthur
3. poorly organized and poorly funded
4. campaign contributions, organized interest groups, and lobbyists

Question 11

This chapter will investigate the economic, social, and demographic changes that transformed Texas’s political culture during the twentieth century. These changes shook Texas government and politics in the _____ and have continued to shape them in the second decade of the twenty-first century.

Answer 11

1990s

Question 12

Much of Texas’s history and political life has been shaped by the relationship forged between _____. Texas is the _____ state in size, next to Alaska. To understand the dynamics of political life and governance in Texas demands _____ [think: this section is about geography].

Answer 12

1. its people and the land
2. second-largest
3. an appreciation of the vast spaces and topography that define the state

Question 13

Perhaps the most distinctive characteristic of Texas’s geography is _____. The longest straight-line distance across the state from north to south is 801 miles; the longest east–west distance is 773 miles. To put this into perspective, the east–west distance from New York City to Chicago is 821 miles, cutting across five different states. The north–south distance between New York City and Charleston, South Carolina, is 763 miles, cutting across six different states.

Answer 13

1. its size

Question 14

Distances alone do not tell the whole story of the diverse geography found in Texas. There are four distinct physical regions in Texas: _____ (Figure 1.1). The distinctive features of these regions have shaped politics in Texas in a number of important ways.

Answer 14

1. the Gulf Coastal Plains, the Interior Lowlands, the Great Plains, and the Basin and Range Province

Question 15

The Gulf Coastal Plains extend from _____ up to _____. As one moves westward, the climate becomes increasingly _____. Forests become less frequent as post oak trees dominate the landscape until they too are replaced by _____.

Answer 15

1. the Louisiana border and the Gulf of Mexico, along the Rio Grande
2. Del Rio, and northward to the line of the Balcones Fault and Escarpment
3. arid
4. the prairies and brushlands of central Texas

Question 16

The eastern portion of the Gulf Coastal Plains—so-called _____—is characterized by _____. Almost all of Texas’s _____ production takes place here. It is also the home of some of Texas’s most famous _____. To the west is the _____. _____ made the Blackland Belt a prime farming area during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It was a major center of _____ in Texas. Today it is _____.

Answer 16

1. east Texas
2. hilly surfaces covered by forests of pine and hardwoods
3. timber
4. oilfields
5. Blackland Belt
6. A rolling prairie soil
7. cotton production
8. the most densely populated area of the state and has a diversified manufacturing base

Question 17

The Coastal Prairies around Houston and Beaumont were the center for the post–World War II _____. _____ plays a major role in the Lower Rio Grande Valley, while _____ is important in the Rio Grande Plain, an area that receives less than 24 inches of rainfall on average every year and during the summer months experiences rapid evaporation.

Answer 17

1. industrial boom, particularly in the petrochemical industry
2. Winter-vegetable and fruit production
3. livestock

Question 18

Texas’s political life grew out of _____. The land grants made available to Americans willing to come to Texas in the first half of the nineteenth century were located here. This region was the foundation of [think: what did it look like before the Civil War?]. The Dallas–Fort Worth area is located in the northwestern part of this region, once a bastion of a small Republican Party. A union movement grew out of the industrialized areas along the coast, providing support to a liberal wing of the Democratic Party. For the most part, though, the Gulf Coastal Plains were dominated by _____. _____ in Houston and Dallas–Fort Worth have added new dimensions to the political life of this region. Urban areas have become increasingly _____, while suburban areas have become more _____.

Answer 18

1. the Gulf Coastal Plains
2. plantation life during the antebellum period when slavery flourished in the state
3. rural conservative values, be they located in the Democratic Party (from 1876 to the early 1990s) or in the Republican Party (from the 1990s to today)
4. Urbanization and suburbanization
5. Democratic
6. Republican

Question 19

The Interior Lowlands are an extension of _____. They are bordered by _____ on the east and south and _____ on the west. Beginning to the west of Fort Worth, the eastern edge of the Interior Lowlands has predominantly an _____ economy and a _____ population. The western portion, meanwhile, rises from 750 to 2,000 feet in elevation. The West Texas Rolling Plains contain much level, cultivable land and are home to a large _____ industry. Many of the state’s largest _____ are located here. The region is dominated by _____ [in politics].

Answer 19

1. the interior lowlands that run down from Canada
2. the Balcones Escarpment
3. the Caprock Escarpment
4. agricultural
5. rural
6. cattle-raising
7. ranches
8. conservative politics and the Republican Party

Question 20

Pushing down into northwest Texas from the Rocky Mountains to the Balcones Fault, the Great Plains define ____ [what geography and where? How?]. The major city on the northern plains is _____. _____ production dominate the economy. The southern plains economy centers on _____ production, with Lubbock as the major city. Large-scale _____ has played a major role in the economic development of this region. A major concern of policy makers is that pumping out of the aquifer _____ [does what?], raising questions of the viability of basing future growth on the irrigation practices of the past. We will return to a discussion of the problem of aquifer depletion in the public policy chapter.

Answer 20

1. the terrain in much of western Texas, rising from 2,700 feet in the east to more than 4,000 feet along the New Mexico border
2. Amarillo
3. Ranching and petroleum
4. agriculture and cotton
5. irrigation from underwater reservoirs, particularly the Ogallala Aquifer,
6. exceeds replenishment

Question 21

As in East Texas, _____ political values have a home in the Interior Lowlands and the Great Plains. While representatives from this area have played a major role in the political life of the state over the last 100 years, their power has been ebbing in the face of _____.

Answer 21

1. conservative

2. the population pressures of Texas’s expanding urban areas elsewhere

Question 22

The fourth geographic region in Texas is the Basin and Range Province. Here one finds Texas’s _____ [distinctive geographical features and border with what state?]. To the southeast is Big Bend country, so named because the Rio Grande River surrounds it on three sides as the river makes its southward swing. Rainfall and population are _____ in this region.

Answer 22

1. mountains in the Guadalupe Range along the border with New Mexico, which includes Guadalupe Peak (8,749 feet) and El Capitan (8,085 feet)
2. sparse

Question 23

The area running from the Basin and Range Province to the Lower Rio Grande has always had a distinctive political culture, heavily dominated by the fact that _____. In the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, the Border region, including El Paso, McAllen, and Brownsville, has remained a _____ bastion.

Answer 23

1. Texas and Mexico have been joined at the hip economically and demographically
2. Democratic Party

Question 24

The famous twentieth-century economist Joseph Schumpeter characterized the capitalist economic system as being a process of “_____.” By this he meant that _____. These waves of technological transformation were put into place by entrepreneurs who had visions of new ways to produce and distribute goods and services and who were willing to act on those visions. The capitalist process of creative destruction not only creates a new economic and social world; it _____. The world of railroads, steam, and steel transformed American economic and social life by _____. It also destroyed the local markets that had defined rural American communities since the Founding. The technological innovation tied to _____ restructured the American economy again in the 1920s, leaving in its wake a society and an economy that would never be the same.

Answer 24

1. creative destruction
2. capitalism was an economic system that underwent periodic waves of transformation fueled by technological innovations in production and distribution
3. destroys old ones
4. nationalizing the market and making new opportunities available to businesses and individuals during the late nineteenth century
5. gasoline combustion engines, electricity, and radio

Question 25

Schumpeter’s theory of creative destruction provides a useful way to think about the economic changes that have shaped and reshaped the Texas economy. Three great waves of technological change have helped define and redefine the Texas political economy over the last 150 years. The first centered on _____. The second grew out of _____. The third and most recent is tied to _____.

Answer 25

1. the production of cotton and cattle and their distribution by an extensive railroad system
2. the oil industry
3. the development of the high-tech digital economy

Question 26

Cotton is one of the _____ crops grown in Texas. _____ are reported to have produced several thousand pounds of cotton annually, which were spun and woven by local artisans. Serious cultivation of cotton began in 1821 with _____. _____ promoted the development of the cotton industry. By the mid-nineteenth century, cotton production in Texas soared, placing Texas _____ among the top cotton-producing states in the Union. Although production fell in the years following the Civil War, by 1869 it had _____. By 1880, Texas led _____ in the production of cotton in most years.

Answer 26

1. oldest
2. Missions in San Antonio in the eighteenth century
3. the arrival of white Americans
4. Political independence, statehood, and the ongoing removal of the Native American “threat” in the years before the Civil War
5. eighth
6. begun to pick up again
7. all states

Question 27

A number of technological breakthroughs further stimulated the cotton industry in Texas. First, in the 1870s barbed wire was introduced, enabling farmers to _____. Second, the _____ brought Texas farmers into a national market. Finally, _____ and significantly increase farm productivity.

Answer 27

1. cordon off their lands and protect their cash crop from grazing cattle
2. building of railroads
3. a newly designed plow made it easier to dig up the prairie soil

Question 28

Throughout the 1870s immigrants from the Deep South and Europe flooded the prairies of Texas to _____. Most of these newly arrived Texans became _____. Tenants _____ [explain what a tenant farmer is]. They generally received two-thirds of the final value of the cotton grown on the farm, while the landlords received the other third. Another form of tenant farming is sharecropping. Sharecroppers _____ [explain what sharecropping is]. Almost _____ of the state farmers were tenants by the turn of the century.

Answer 28

1. farm cotton
2. tenant farmers or sharecroppers
3. lived on farms owned by landowners, providing their own animals, tools, and seed
4. furnished only their labor but received only one-half of the value of the final product
5. half

Question 29

Two important consequences resulted from the tenant and sharecropping system. First, it _____. The notorious “crop-lien” system was developed to extend credit to farmers in exchange for liens on their crops. The result often was _____. Second, the tenant and sharecropping system helped fuel _____. These movements played a major role in defining the style of Texas politics throughout much of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

Answer 29

1. condemned many rural Texans to lives of social and economic dependency
2. to trap farmers in a debt cycle from which they could not escape
3. radical political discontent in rural areas, sparking both the Grange and Populist movements

Question 30

Cotton production _____ as farmers experienced a series of crises and opportunities during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, ranging from _____ to _____ to _____ [what affected cotton production over the course of Texas/US history?]. The general decline of the cotton culture continued after World War II. The 1930 Census reported that _____ of all farmers in Texas were tenant farmers. _____ of these farmers were sharecroppers. These numbers _____ throughout the Great Depression and beyond. By 1987 only 12 percent of all farmers were tenants.

Answer 30

1. cycled up and down
2. destructive boll weevils
3. an increased demand brought on by World War I
4. a collapse in prices following the war
5. 61 percent
6. One-third
7. fell

Question 31

The history of ranching and the cattle industry parallels that of _____ in many ways. The origins of ranching and the cattle industry extend back to the _____ century, when the Spanish brought livestock to the region to feed their missionaries, soldiers, and civilians. Ranching offered immigrants an attractive alternative to _____. In the 1830s traffic in cattle was _____. This began to change as cattle drives and railroads began opening up new markets in the east.

Answer 31

1. cotton
2. late seventeenth
3. farming during the periods of Mexican and Republic of Texas rule
4. limited to local areas

Question 32

Following the Civil War, the cattle industry _____. As with cotton, the invention of barbed wire helped close off the lands used for grazing. By the end of the nineteenth century, ranch lands had been transformed _____ [from to what?]. As a result, conflicts over land often broke out between _____. As cattle raising became a more specialized and efficient business, periodic conflicts broke out between employers and employees. Throughout the twentieth century, ranching remained a _____ industry, struggling when _____ [what happened to affect the viability / profitability of the industry over time?].

Answer 32

1. took off, expanding throughout the state
2. from open range to fenced pasturing
3. large and small ranchers, as well as between ranchers and farmers
4. cyclical
5. national and international prices collapsed and thriving during upturns in the economy

Question 33

Ranching and cotton production remain _____ industries in the state, although increasingly dominated by big agribusiness companies. Texas normally _____ the nation in livestock production. Similarly, it normally _____ other states in cotton production. Over 28 percent of the total cotton production in the United States came from Texas. In 2013 the annual cotton crop was 4.1 million bales, down from a peak in 2005 of 8.4 million bales. Production has fluctuated in recent years because of _____.

Answer 33

1. important
2. leads
3. leads all
4. the severe drought that has plagued parts of the state

Question 34

Neither cotton production nor ranching _____ the Texas political economy as in the past. The number of people making a living from agriculture has dropped significantly over the last 50 years as agribusiness has pushed out the family farm and ranch. In 1940, 23 percent of the population worked on farms and ranches. Another 17 percent were suppliers to farms and ranches or helped assemble, process, or distribute agricultural products. Currently, less than 2 percent of the population lives on farms and ranches, with an additional 15 percent of the population providing support, processing, or distribution services to agriculture in Texas.

Answer 34

1. drives

Question 35

A new set of technological breakthroughs challenged the nineteenth-century dominance of cotton and cattle in the early twentieth century. These breakthroughs focused not on what grew on the land, but _____.

Answer 35

1. on what lay beneath it

Question 36

Oil was first sighted ____ [when and how?]. There was no market or demand for the product, and nothing was done to develop this natural resource. Over a century later, encouraged by a growing demand for petroleum products following the Civil War, a scattering of entrepreneurs dug wells, although they were not commercially viable. The first economically significant oil discovery in Texas was _____ [when and where?]. By 1898 the state’s first oil refinery was operating at the site. Oil production had become _____.

Answer 36

1. in the mid-seventeenth century by Spanish explorers
2. in 1894 in Navarro County near Corsicana
3. economically viable

Question 37

What catapulted Texas into the era of oil and gas was _____. Located three miles south of Beaumont along the Gulf Coast, the Spindletop discovery produced Texas’s _____. The success of Spindletop encouraged large numbers of speculators and entrepreneurs to try their luck in the new business. Within three years, three major oilfields had been discovered within 150 miles of Spindletop.

Answer 37

1. the discovery at Spindletop on January 10, 1901

2. first oil boom

Question 38

Oil fever spread throughout Texas over the next decade. In north central Texas, major discoveries took place at _____. In the teens major discoveries were made in _____. In 1921 oil was found in the Panhandle, and by the end of the decade _____. The biggest oilfield in the state was found in October 1930 in east Texas. As journalist Mary G. Ramos notes, “By the time the East Texas field was developed, Texas’s economy was powered not by agriculture, but by _____.”

Answer 38

1. Brownwood, Petrolia, and Wichita Falls
2. Wichita County, Limestone County near Mexia, and once again in Navarro County
3. major oilfields were being developed all across the state
4. petroleum

Question 39

The oil and gas industry transformed the social and economic fabric of Texas in a number of important ways. By providing cheap oil and gas, the industry made possible _____ [broad economic history thing]. Cheap oil provided a new fuel for transportation and manufacturing. Railroads and steamships were able to convert from coal to oil. Manufacturing plants and farms were able to operate more efficiently with a new, cheap source of energy, encouraging individuals to _____. Automobile production was encouraged, as was the building of roads. The Interstate Highway System that was built during the 1950s and 1960s changed fundamentally the transportation patterns that shaped the movements of people and goods in Texas. _____ became the heartland of the Texas economy and the location of an increasing percentage of the state’s population.

Answer 39

1. a new industrial revolution in twentieth-century America that was fueled by hydrocarbons
2. migrate to cities away from farms
3. The triangle formed by I-35 from San Antonio to Dallas–Fort Worth, I-45 from Dallas–Fort Worth to Houston, and I-10 from Houston to San Antonio

Question 40

The oil and gas industry also sparked a _____ of the Gulf Coast region. Among the companies developing the Gulf Coast oilfields were _____. The refineries, pipelines, and export facilities laid the foundations for the large-scale industrialization that would take place along the _____ region. By 1929 in Harris County, for example, 27 percent of all manufacturing employees worked in refineries. By 1940 the capacity of all the refineries had increased fourfold. The petrochemical industry continued to flourish throughout the 1960s, when demand for its products grew at the rate of _____ a year.

Answer 40

1. rapid industrialization
2. Gulf Oil, Sun Oil, Magnolia Petroleum, the Texas Company (then Texaco, now ChevronTexaco), and Humble Oil (which later became Esso, then Exxon, and finally ExxonMobil)
3. Gulf Coast in the Houston–Beaumont–Port Arthur
4. 10 percent

Question 41

One important effect of the oil and gas boom in Texas was the development of _____ in the state. There had been a natural pace to the economy when it was tied to _____. Prices of products could rise and fall, bringing prosperity or gloom to local economies. But there was a bond between the land and the people and the communities that formed around them. Oil and gas, on the other hand, introduced _____. Rural areas were often unprepared for the population explosion that followed the discovery of oil or gas. Housing was often inadequate or nonexistent. Schools quickly became overcrowded. General living conditions were poor as people sought to “make it big.” The irony of the oil and gas business was that _____. Prosperous economic times could quickly turn into local depressions. And when particular fields were tapped out, boom towns could quickly become ghost towns.

Answer 41

1. a new rhythm to economic life
2. the production of cotton and cattle
3. a boom-and-bust mentality that carried over into the communities that sprang up around oil and gas discoveries
4. a major discovery that brought large amounts of new oil and gas to market could lead to a sudden collapse in prices

Question 42

The oil and gas industry also transformed government and the role that it played in the economy. Following the Civil War, a series of attempts to regulate the railroads had _____. In 1890, after considerable controversy fueled by Populist anti-railroad sentiment, a constitutional amendment was passed to _____. This regulatory agency’s powers were extended in 1917 to regulate _____. The Railroad Commission was empowered to _____ [what did it do? What was its function?]. In an attempt to bring stability to fluctuations in world oil prices brought on by the glut of oil on world markets in the 1930s and to conserve wasteful oil production, the commission won the authority to _____. Through the late 1960s the Texas Railroad Commission was one of the most important regulatory bodies in the nation. It was also one of the few _____ regulatory agencies.

Answer 42

1. largely failed
2. create an agency to regulate the railroads, the Texas Railroad Commission
3. energy
4. see that petroleum pipelines were “common carriers” (that they transported all producers’ oil and gas) and to promote well-spacing rules
5. prorate oil and determine how much every oil well in Texas might produce
6. democratically elected

Question 43

Helping to expand the power of state government in the economy through the Railroad Commission was only one effect of the oil and gas industry in Texas. It also had an important _____ effect on state government. Beginning in 1905 the state collected oil production taxes. These rose from $101,403 in 1906 to over $1 million in 1919 and almost $6 million in 1929. For the 2014–15 biennium, it was estimated that oil production taxes, or severance taxes, would contribute $6.5 billion to the state budget, up from $5.09 billion in 2012–13, an increase of 27.6 percent. Natural gas production taxes added another $2.99 billion to the state budget, down 1.2 percent in 2012–13.16 These numbers represented a sharp turnaround from the previous two decades, when oil and natural gas revenues had sharply fallen. As we will see in Chapter 11 on public finance in Texas, oil and natural gas production has returned to _____.

Answer 43

1. fiscal

2. play an increasingly important role in the state’s finances through the severance tax

Question 44

Much like the state coffers, higher education in Texas has _____ from the oil and gas industry. What many thought was worthless land at the time had been set aside by the state constitution of 1876 and the state legislature in 1883 to support higher education (the Permanent University Fund). As luck would have it, oil was discovered in the West Texas Permian Basin in 1923 on university land. Soon 17 wells were producing oil on that land, sparking a building boom at _____. In 1931 the income of the Permanent University Fund was split between _____, with the former receiving two-thirds and the latter one-third. In 1984 the income was opened up to all University of Texas and Texas A&M schools. Along with the royalties from other natural resources on university land, oil and gas royalties created _____ [what kind of? What relative scale?] university endowments in the world. Today, the Permanent University Fund holds title to 2.1 million acres located in 24 counties, primarily in _____. In December 2012 the market value of the Permanent University Fund was calculated to be $15.881 billion.

Answer 44

1. benefited
2. the University of Texas
3. the University of Texas at Austin and Texas A&M University
4. one of the largest
5. west Texas

Question 45

The oil and gas industry had one other effect on life in Texas that is worth noting. Fortunes were made in the industry, and those fortunes paved the way for [a/an] _____ of private philanthropy that would have a major influence in shaping Texas’s culture. Among the most famous examples of this private philanthropy were the Meadows Foundations, established _____ [when and for what purpose?]. The Sid W. Richardson Foundation was founded _____ [when and for what purpose?]. The Bass Performance Hall, which opened in May 1998, was funded by _____.

Answer 45

1. expansion
2. in 1948 to promote programs in health, education, visual arts, social services, and historical preservation
3. in 1947 and supported health and education programs, as well as the development of the arts in Fort Worth
4. the Bass brothers, grandnephews of the independent oilman Sid Richardson

Question 46

One can trace the rise and decline and rise again of the oil and gas industry in Texas through production figures (see Figure 1.2). Oil production in Texas seemed to peak in _____, and there were decades of decline in the state’s production. _____ have led to a new boom era of oil and gas production in Texas beginning in _____ and carrying through until today. In September 2013, 2.7 million barrels of oil per day were pumped in Texas—the highest monthly record since _____. That was a 30 percent increase in production over the previous September’s figures. More than one million barrels of that daily production came from _____ [where geographically?]. This oilfield may be the second largest in the world. The result of this new oil boom is that oil (and gas) is emerging again as a mainstay of the Texas economy, although it is an economy that is far more _____ than in an earlier era. With the new Texas oil boom will come greater resources for the Texas budget. Additionally, with the boom will come new demands for _____ and new concerns over _____.

Answer 46

1. 1972
2. New technologies such as horizontal drilling and fracking
3. 2008
4. September 1981, when such records first began to be kept
5. the Permian Basin region in west Texas
6. diversified
7. vast water supplies—an essential component of the new drilling technology—
8. the effects that those new technologies will have on the environment

Question 47

New industries and technologies have come to assume significant roles in plotting the state’s economic future. Among the most important of these was the burgeoning _____ industry.

Answer 47

1. high-tech

Question 48

The movement out of the era of oil and gas and into that of high tech was not an easy one. World oil prices rose in 1981 to almost $35 per barrel. At the time, oil-related businesses accounted for 26 percent of the gross state product. From 1971 to 1981 the average rate of economic growth was 4.4 percent. Fueled by a booming oil-based economy and a rapidly increasing population, real estate prices shot up in _____ [where geographically?]. Projections were made that as oil prices rose, perhaps to $70 or $80 per barrel on the world market, future prosperity was inevitable. Indeed, there was some talk that Texas’s oil-driven economy had become _____. Such talk proved to be premature, to say the least.

Answer 48

1. urban areas such as Houston and Dallas

2. recession-proof

Question 49

World oil prices began to collapse in _____, bottoming out on March 31, 1986, at $10 per barrel. Other sectors of the economy began to suffer as the price of oil fell. Real estate deals fell through, and construction projects slowed and then shut down. Speculators defaulted on their loans, and banks began to fail. Throughout the 1980s, _____ [how many?] banks went under in Texas. At the same time, the state went through _____. The average annual economic growth slowed to _____.

Answer 49

1. 1982
2. 370
3. two major recessions, one in 1982 and another in 1986–87
4. 1.7 percent, the worst since World War II

Question 50

Texas emerged from the economic malaise of the 1980s with a transformed state economy. Though remaining an important sector in the economy, the oil and gas business was _____. By 1992 production of oil had fallen to 642 million barrels worth $11.8 billion. Production continued to fall until 2000 to just under 349 million barrels worth a little over $10 billion. Over 146,000 jobs had been lost in the oil industry throughout the 1980s. By the early 1990s oil accounted for _____ of the gross state product.

Answer 50

1. no longer the primary driving force

2. only about 12 percent

Question 51

In contrast to the 1980s, the 1990s were a period of rapid growth. In the 1990s, unlike in early periods of speculative booms such as the 1970s, the economy’s growth was grounded in _____. At the heart of this boom was _____. In the 1990s, Texas went from seventh in the nation in total manufacturing employment to second. By 2013, 15 percent of the state’s gross domestic product came from manufacturing. Eight percent of the workforce was employed in manufacturing.

Answer 51

1. a rapidly diversifying economy

2. a fast-growing manufacturing sector tied to high tech

Question 52

Two metropolitan areas stand out as national centers for the rapidly evolving high-tech industry. _____ is the home of the computer giant Dell and has become a production center for computer chips, personal computers, and related computer hardware with such companies as Flextronics, Apple, Oracle, and IBM. Seven of the area’s largest employers are part of the computer or semiconductor industry. _____ is the home of a number of important electronic and electronic-equipment companies, including Texas Instruments. Houston has become known worldwide for its _____ [large economy/industry in…]. A 2014 study released by the TechAmerica Foundation found that Texas was the _____ tech export state with $45.1 billion in exports in 2012, up 7.3 percent from 2011. Approximately 331,000 jobs in Texas were supported by these tech exports.

Answer 52

1. The Austin–San Marcos metropolitan area
2. The Dallas metropolitan area, particularly north of the city,
3. medical center and expanding research facilities in the medical field
4. leading

Question 53

Texas’s place in national and international markets has been shaped by _____. There are 306,404 miles of highways in Texas (the most in the nation) along with 45 railroads operating on 10,405 rail miles (the most in the nation). There are 12 deep-water ports in Texas, including the Port of Houston, which was ranked _____. The Dallas–Fort Worth International Airport and George Bush Intercontinental Airport in Houston ranked _____. Over 6.5 million trucks, 47.8 million personal vehicles, and 22.9 million people crossed the Texas-Mexico border in 2013. How many? A _____.

Answer 53

1. its central location, its border with Mexico, and its sophisticated transportation infrastructure
2. second nationally for total trade and thirteenth globally for total cargo volume
3. high on the list of the world’s busiest airports and were major hubs for both national and international travel
4. lot

Question 54

One defining feature of the Texas economy in the 1990s and 2000s was the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). Signed on December 17, 1992, by Prime Minister Brian Mulroney of Canada, President Carlos Salinas de Gortari of Mexico, and President George H. W. Bush of the United States, NAFTA sought to _____. Considerable controversy surrounded the passage of NAFTA, with many groups arguing that free trade would _____. An important milestone in the agreement was reached on October 19, 2001, when Mexican trucks were finally allowed to cross over into the United States with goods for U.S. markets. Despite NAFTA provisions, Mexican trucks had been _____ [what and why?].

Answer 54

1. create a free-trade zone—an area free of customs duties—in North America that was the largest of its kind in the world
2. hurt U.S. workers and companies because of the cheap labor available in Mexico
3. banned in the United States for almost 20 years because of strong labor union opposition and concerns over safety

Question 55

Today NAFTA links approximately _____ [how many?] consumers in the United States, Canada, and Mexico with a combined gross domestic product of $19.6 trillion. According to a recent Standard and Poor’s study, _____ has benefited the most from the agreement. But Texas has _____ [benefited or been adversely effected?]. NAFTA was not the only cause to the diversification of the Texas economy since the 1980s, but it has _____. Along the border, NAFTA has clearly had an impact in stimulating _____ across the state and stimulating the production of _____. For example, _____—the port of entry for 40 percent of U.S.–Mexico truck transport trade—has seen its labor force increase 48 percent between 1994 and 2014, far above the 35 percent state average. International toll bridges alone accounted for 23 percent of [previously mentioned port of entry’s] general fund revenue in 2012.

Answer 55

1. 450 million
2. Mexico
3. benefited enormously as well
4. accelerated that diversification
5. trade and transport
6. jobs
7. Laredo, Texas

Question 56

After more than 20 years, it appears that the trade agreement has had both negative and positive impacts on Texas. A 2011 study by the Economic Policy Institute calculated that almost 683,000 jobs had been lost in the United States because of NAFTA. The study estimated that three-fifths of these jobs were in the manufacturing sector. Over 55,000 of these displaced jobs came from Texas. U.S. workers generally lost their jobs because of the stiffer competition from low-wage businesses in Mexico or because plants had been relocated to Mexico. (Under federal law such workers are entitled to additional unemployment compensation.)

Answer 56

1.

Question 57

Although there were some losers in the movement toward free trade with Mexico and Canada, there were also big winners. The following statistics from 2013 put the importance of Texas’s international trade, particularly with Mexico and Canada, into perspective:
• Texas exports totaled $279.7 billion, up from $207 billion in 2012. Texas exports were 17.7 percent of all U.S. exports.
• The North American market (Mexico and Canada) was the destination for 45.4 percent of these exports.
• Mexico was the top importer of Texas exports at almost $101 billion in 2013, up from $72.7 billion in 2012.
• Canada’s imports from Texas totaled $25.9 billion in 2013, up from $18.8 billion in 2010.

Got it? _____.

Answer 57

1. Yes.

Question 58

For the past 20 years, the information age and the global economy have transformed the Texas economic landscape. It is impossible to say exactly how these forces will continue to change Texas over the next 20 years, or which companies will become the ChevronTexacos or ExxonMobils of the information age. We can say, however, that it will be an economy as different from that of the oil and gas era as _____.

Answer 58

1. the oil and gas era was from the era of cotton and cattle

Question 59

In December 2007 the nation entered what some have called “the Great Recession,” a time of _____. _____ culminated in a credit crisis that brought some of America’s largest banks and investment houses to their knees. Only _____ in the fall of 2008 prevented the banking system from melting down. The Federal Reserve reported that between November 2007 and March 2009, 86 percent of American industries cut back production. The GNP dropped 1.7 percent and household net worth fell $11 trillion or 18 percent during the recession.

Answer 59

1. chronic economic problems that drew analogies to the Great Depression of the 1930s
2. A speculative bubble in the housing market fueled by cheap credit and poor business practices
3. the massive intrusion of the Federal Reserve System into credit markets

Question 60

Texas was _____ to enter the Great Recession and was one of the first to exit. Prior to the recession, Texas employment had peaked at 10.6 million in August 2008. From late 2008 through 2009, 427,600 jobs were lost in Texas to the Great Recession. By November 2011 employment had recovered to pre-recession levels. By April 2014 another 829,000 jobs had been added to the Texas economy. The story at the national level was not so rosy. By the summer of 2014 jobs numbers were only beginning to approach pre–Great Recession levels. Meanwhile the unemployment rate in Texas rose to 8.2 percent and hovered there throughout most of 2010. Unemployment rates began falling in early 2011 and continued to fall for the next two years, dropping from 6.4 percent in March 2013 to 5.2 percent in April 2014.

Answer 60

1. one of the last states

Question 61

Many Texas politicians sought to take credit for Texas’s performance during and after the Great Recession. Comparisons were made with big-government, high-tax states like California that suffered severely. _____ were given credit for the “Texas economic miracle.” But the factors that may have helped Texas get by relatively unscathed were likely more straightforward. The housing market declined _____ [how severely?] severely in Texas than in the rest of the nation. Most of Texas did not experience the surge in real estate values found in other states like California, Nevada, Florida, and Arizona. While foreclosure rates throughout the country increased sixfold between 2005 and 2009, in Texas they rose _____ [how much?]. Texas’s banking industry also appeared to have weathered the storm better than its counterparts in other states. Article 16 of the Texas Constitution, as amended in 1997, _____ [does what and how did this affect Texas during the Great Recession?]. Two of the most important factors that may have helped Texas escape the worst of the Great Recession were discussed above: _____.

Answer 61

1. Low taxes and low services, pro-business and free market government, an entrepreneurial spirit—all
2. much less
3. only marginally
4. forbids consumers from using home-equity loans for credit that exceeds 80 percent of the mortgage, and this probably provided a cushion against the credit crunch
5. an increasingly diversified economy lubricated by international trade and a resurgent oil and gas industry

Question 62

The population in Texas has grown rapidly in the last 165 years. In 1850 the population stood at a little more than 210,000 people, more than one-quarter of whom were _____. Texas in 1850 also was an overwhelmingly rural state. Only 4 percent of the population lived in urban areas. By 1900 the population had increased to more than 3 million people, with _____ percent continuing to live in rural areas. The 1980s began as boom years for population growth, with increases running between 2.9 percent and 1.6 percent per year from 1980 through 1986. With the collapse of oil prices, however, population growth _____ [changed how?].

Answer 62

1. African American slaves
2. 83
3. slowed significantly between 1987 and 1989 to less than 1 percent

Question 63

With a recovering economy, population growth _____ in the 1990s (see Table 1.1). In 1990, 17 million people resided in the state. By 2012 the number of people was estimated to be over 26 million. Almost 45 percent of the population were non-Hispanic white in 2012, down from 61 percent in 1990. A little over 11 percent were African American. Over 38 percent were Hispanic, up from 25 percent in 1990.

Answer 63

1. surged

2.

Question 64

Three factors account for the population growth in Texas: _____. The makeup of the growth in population shifted in significant ways over the course of the decade. In 1991 almost two-thirds of population growth was accounted for by natural increases. A little more than 20 percent was a result of international immigration, while less than 14 percent resulted from domestic immigration. By 2013 natural increases accounted for only 54 percent of population growth, while international immigration accounted for about 16. [Thus, natural increases accounted for ____ in 2013 than they did in 1991] percent and domestic immigration for about 29.7 percent. In the early decades of the twenty-first century, Texas was being redefined not by native-born Texans but by _____.

Answer 64

1. natural increase as a result of the difference between births and deaths; international immigration, particularly from Mexico; and domestic immigration from other states
2. less
3. individuals coming to Texas to share in and contribute to the state’s diversified economy

Question 65

For most of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the dominant ethnic group was _____. Whites in Texas comprise a wide range of European ethnic groups, including _____. The first wave of whites came to Texas _____ [when?]. Encouraged by _____, who were authorized by the Spanish and later the Mexican leaders to bring people to Texas, these newcomers sought inexpensive land. But they brought along a new set of _____ that paved the way for the Texas Revolution. Following the revolution, a new surge of white immigrants came from _____. Like their predecessors, they sought cheap land. But they brought with them new cultural baggage: slavery. By the time of the American Civil War, this group had come to _____. Although most Texas farmers did not own slaves themselves, the vast majority _____.

Answer 65

1. non-Hispanic whites
2. English, Germans, Scots, Irish, Czechs, and European Jews
3. before the break with Mexico
4. impresarios such as Moses Austin and his son Stephen F. Austin
5. individualistic attitudes and values about democratic government
6. the Deep South
7. dominate the political culture of the state
8. supported the institution as well as secession from the Union

Question 66

Defeat in the Civil War _____ the dominance of the traditional white power structure in the state. By the end of Reconstruction, however, it had reasserted itself, establishing the three patterns that defined Texas politics for the next hundred years: _____. Whites continued to dominate and define Texas’s political culture throughout much of the twentieth century, but by the end of that century much had changed. As a percentage of the population, white population peaked at 74 percent in _____. This percentage began to fall, reaching 44.5 percent in 2014, and will likely _____ (see Figure 1.4).

Answer 66

1. shattered
2. the one-party Democratic state, provincialism, and business dominance
3. 1950
4. continue to fall

Question 67

Numbers alone do not tell the whole story. Whites living in Texas at the end of the twentieth century were not cut from the same cloth as those who had preceded them. _____ has redefined the political culture of white Texans. No longer can one assume that a white Texan _____. On the contrary, he or she may be _____.

Answer 67

1. A new wave of white immigration into Texas over the past 40 years
2. lives on a farm, holds culturally conservative values, and is firmly tied to the Democratic Party
3. an urbanite or suburbanite who wasn’t born in Texas and who votes Republican

Question 68

The use of the terms Hispanic and Latino can be confusing. The terms are often used interchangeably to refer to people of Spanish descent or people from Latin America. We will use the term _____ except when referring to statistical databases such as the U.S. Census that use the term _____.

Answer 68

1. Latino

2. Hispanic

Question 69

Most Latinos in Texas are people of _____ descent. Prior to independence from Spain, this included people born of Iberian (Spanish) parents as well as mestizos (people of _____ ancestry). In the early nineteenth century, approximately 5,000 people of Mexican descent were living in Texas. Although this number fluctuated considerably over the years, by 1850 it was estimated that 14,000 Texans were of Mexican origin. Texas became for many a refuge from _____. Despite periodic attempts to curtail the growth of the Mexican American population in Texas, it grew from an estimated 700,000 in 1930 to 1,400,000 in 1960. The 2000 census counted 5.1 million Mexican Americans living in Texas. In 2013 there were 9.97 million Latinos residing in Texas. Texas Latinos constituted almost 19 percent of all Latinos in the United States.

Answer 69

1. Mexican
2. mixed Spanish and Native American
3. the political and economic instability that troubled Mexico from the late 1850s to the 1920s

Question 70

Until 1900, Latinos were concentrated in _____ Texas, constituting a majority along the border with Mexico and in certain border counties of west Texas. During the first few decades of the twentieth century, Latinos migrated to _____ [where and to do what?]. _____ limited the opportunities available to many Latinos before World War II. After World War II, however, many Latinos left agricultural work and took jobs in _____. By the end of the century, Latinos constituted _____ [majorities and sizable minorities in what cities?] (see Figure 1.5).

Answer 70

1. south
2. northwest Texas and the Panhandle to work as laborers in the newly emergent cotton economy
3. Labor segregation
4. the rapidly growing urban areas of Texas
5. majorities in the cities of San Antonio and El Paso and sizable minorities in Houston, Dallas, Austin, and Fort Worth

Question 71

The political status of Latinos in Texas has changed considerably over the past hundred years. In the nineteenth century, numerous obstacles limited their participation in the political life of the state. Voting, particularly among the lower economic classes, was _____. _____ actively discouraged voting by Latinos. Only after World War II were Latino politicians able to escape some of the strictures that had been imposed on them by the dominant Anglo political culture of the time. A more tolerant atmosphere in the growing urban areas enabled Latino politicians to assume positions of importance in the local political community. In 1956, Henry B. Gonzalez became _____. In the mid-1960s a political movement emerged in the La Raza Unida Party, which sought to _____. By the 1980s, Latino political leaders were playing a growing role in state politics, and Latino voters were _____ by both political parties. The number of Latinos elected to public office rose from 1,466 in 1986 to 2,521 in 2011. In 2013 the National Association of Latino Elected and Appointed Officials reported that 1 Latino served in the U.S. Senate from Texas, 6 Latinos represented Texas in the U.S. House of Representatives, 7 Latinos were in the Texas State Senate, and 40 Latinos were elected to the state legislature. In addition, the association reported that 2,477 Latinos served as local officials in Texas.

Answer 71

1. discouraged or tightly controlled
2. The white-only primary and the poll tax
3. the first Mexican American to be elected to the Texas Senate in modern times
4. confront many of the discriminatory practices that isolated Texas Latinos from the political and economic mainstream
5. courted heavily

Question 72

People of African descent were among the _____ of Texas. Most African Americans, however, entered Texas as _____. Anglo Americans from the upper and lower South brought slaves with them to Texas. At first, _____ kept the slave population down. However, independence from Mexico lifted the restrictions on slavery, creating _____. The number of slaves in Texas rose from 5,000 in 1830 to 11,000 in 1840 to 58,000 in 1850. By the Civil War, over 182,000 slaves lived in Texas, approximately _____ of the state’s entire population.

Answer 72

1. earliest explorers
2. slaves
3. antislavery attitudes among Spanish and Mexican authorities
4. an incentive for southerners to expand the system of slavery westward
5. one-third

Question 73

Emancipation for African Americans living in Texas came on _____. Emancipation, however, did not bring anything approaching equality. Between 1865 and 1868 a series of Black Codes were passed by the state legislature and various cities that sought to _____. _____ opened up new opportunities for former slaves, who supported the radical wing of the Republican Party. Ten African American delegates helped write the Texas Constitution of 1869. Forty-three served as members of the state legislature between 1868 and 1900. _____ reversed much of the progress made by former slaves in the state. In 1900 over 100,000 African Americans voted in Texas elections. By 1903 the number had _____ [done what and why?]. In 1923 the legislature _____ blacks from voting in the Democratic primary. _____ became a guiding principle of public policy, _____ [backed by what and reinforced by what?]. For all intents and purposes, African Americans had become second-class citizens, disenfranchised by the political system and marginalized by the political culture.

Answer 73

1. June 19, 1865
2. restrict the rights of former slaves
3. Military occupation and congressional reconstruction
4. The end of Reconstruction and the return to power of the Democratic Party in the mid-1870s
5. fallen to under 5,000, largely because of the imposition of the poll tax in 1902 and the passage of an early version of the white-primary law in 1903
6. explicitly banned
7. Segregation of the races
8. backed by the police power of the state and reinforced by lynching and race riots against African Americans

Question 74

_____ in the 1940s and 1950s offered some hope of relief to African Americans living in Texas. The Supreme Court decision in Smith v. Allwright (1944) _____ [did what?]. Sweatt v. Painter (1950) _____ [did what?]. Finally, Brown v. Board of Education (1954) _____ [did what?].

Answer 74

1. Federal court cases
2. outlawed the white primary
3. guaranteed African Americans admission to Texas’s graduate and professional schools
4. outlawed the segregation of public schools

Question 75

Political progress was much slower. _____ [what legislation passed in the 60s?] helped to open up the political system in Texas to African Americans. In 1966 a small number of African American candidates actually began to win political office in the state. In 1972, Barbara Jordan became _____ [what did she become that was significant?].

Answer 75

1. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965
2. the first African American woman to be elected to the U.S. House of Representatives from Texas

Question 76

Today the African American population is concentrated in _____ Texas, where _____ were dominant during the nineteenth century. Large numbers of African Americans had also migrated to form sizable minorities in the urban and suburban areas of Houston and Dallas (see Figure 1.6). African American political leaders have come to play major roles in these areas as members of Congress, the state legislature, and city councils. African Americans were also elected mayors of Houston and Dallas in the late 1990s. The political influence of African Americans in Texas has _____ [been or not been?] extended to west Texas, where few African Americans live.

Answer 76

1. east
2. the southern plantation and sharecropping systems
3. not been

Question 77

Although considerably smaller than other groups, the Asian population has grown in Texas in recent years. Asians include individuals from a variety of countries, but particularly _____. In 2012 the U.S. Census Bureau estimated that approximately 1 million Asians resided in Texas, or about 4.2 percent of the state’s population. Asians tend to be concentrated in _____. Sizable pockets of Asians are also found scattered along _____.

Answer 77

1. India, Vietnam, China, Pakistan, Korea, and Japan
2. certain urban areas, particularly in West Houston and Fort Bend County, the western and northern suburbs of Dallas, Arlington, and Travis County
3. the Gulf Coast

Question 78

When compared with the rest of the nation, the population of Texas is relatively _____ [young or old?]. In 2012, 26.8 percent of the population were estimated to be under 18 years old, compared with 23.5 percent nationally. In addition, only 10.9 percent of the population in Texas were 65 years of age or older, compared with 13.7 percent nationally. Having a relatively young population compared with those of other states presents Texas with a variety of problems and opportunities, as we shall see in later chapters.

Answer 78

1. young

2.

Question 79

Younger populations tend to be _____ [poorer or richer?]. As noted above, the 1990s were a period of rapid economic growth in Texas. Despite this growth, however, Texas _____ the nation as a whole (see Table 1.2). Per capita income in Texas, however, rose from $17,421 in 1990 to $40,147 in 2011. Per capita income in Texas metropolitan areas was considerably higher ($41,035) when compared with Texas rural areas ($33,621). Interestingly, _____, a lightly populated rural county in southwest Texas, had the highest per capita income of $79,103. This seeming anomaly is explained by the fact that it is _____. Starr County, in the southeast corner of the state along the Rio Grande, had the lowest at $19,235. Texas ranked 25th among the states in per capita income, up from 32nd in 1990.

Answer 79

1. poorer, as income and poverty statistics bear out
2. continued to lag behind
3. Sutton County
4. rich in oil and natural gas
   5.

Question 80

The percentage of the population in Texas living below the poverty level—a level established by the federal government—_____ [when from where to where?] between 1990 and 2004, _____ [did what in….] in 2006, and _____ [did what in….] in 2012. During the same period, the national poverty rate _____ [did what for all the previously mentioned times?].

Answer 80

1. fell from 15.7 percent to 14.9 percent
2. rose to 16.9 percent
3. rose to 17.9 percent
4. fell from 13.5 percent to 11.7 percent, rose to 13.3 percent in 2006, and rose to 15.9 percent in 2012

Question 81

Urbanization is the process by which _____. Suburbanization is the process by which _____. Much of Texas’s history is linked to ongoing urbanization. By the first decade of the twenty-first century, this process was largely complete, as 85 percent of the population now reside in urban areas (see Table 1.3). Suburbanization, however, _____.

Answer 81

1. people move from rural to urban areas
2. people move out of central city areas to surrounding suburban areas
3. continues as city populations spill over into surrounding suburban areas

Question 82

Most Texas cities are the result of _____ settlement and culture. The Spanish influence on urban life in Texas grew out of _____. The physical organization and planning of the towns reflected this imperial mission. For example, the largest Spanish settlement was San Antonio. It was initially established as _____. Later it expanded as missions were established to _____ and farms were cultivated to feed the local population. By the early nineteenth century, San Antonio’s population had reached 2,500. Other smaller settlements were located in _____ Texas, along the border with French and, later, American territory.

Answer 82

1. American
2. efforts to extend territorial control northward out of Mexico through a series of presidios (garrisons), missions (churches), and pueblos (towns)
3. a supply depot to missions in east Texas
4. convert local Native Americans to Christianity
5. east

Question 83

[for critical analysis] 1. How do you think the increase in the Latino population will change the nature of Texas politics? Will it change the issues that the state government focuses on? Will it have an impact on what party wins elections in Texas?

Answer 83

1. Texas is liable to become more blue.
2. There will probably be a greater focus on issues important to the Latino population: immigration, making sure their neighborhoods have the same services as white neighborhoods, ensuring that the Latino population (and probably other minorities as well) have equal opportunity to whites.
3. Yes: probably Democrats, as they tend to carry the Latino vote. It is possible that the Republicans will be forced to appeal to Latinos and shift their party strategy accordingly.

Question 84

[for critical analysis] 2. Texas is traditionally associated with images of farming, ranching, and other elements of rural life. How do you think the growth of the urban population will change the image of Texas?

Answer 84

1. Texas will be seen as a culture of big oil business. The cultures of metropolitan areas will expand: Dallas’s corporate culture, for example, may become the predominate view of Texas, if it hasn’t already. Neoconservatism, as a heavy expansion of financial sectors of the economy and small government ideas, are more likely to subsume popular images of Texas.

Question 85

White American influence began with _____. Soon his son Stephen F. Austin followed. The Spanish offered the Austins and other impresarios grants of land to _____ [to accomplish what?]. Small towns emerged as administrative units for impresario grants. There was considerably more _____ in American urban areas than in Spanish ones. Americans brought with them a host of new interests and ideas that would transform urban life in Texas, including _____. _____ became a central feature of many American towns, often located in the center of the town surrounded by shops.

Answer 85

1. the arrival of Moses Austin in 1820 in San Antonio
2. encourage the inflow of Americans into underpopulated regions of Texas
3. freedom and dynamism
4. a new language, slavery, Protestantism, and a commitment to free enterprise and democracy
5. The courthouse

Question 86

Urbanization has transformed Texas political life. From Reconstruction through the first 50 years of the twentieth century, Texas’s political life grew out of _____. Today, urbanization and accompanying suburbanization are the forces driving politics in the state.

Answer 86

1. its rural-based economy based on cotton, cattle, oil, and natural gas

Question 87

The expansion of Texas’s urban life initially began _____ and gradually expanded west, particularly along rivers. New technologies transformed the urban landscape of Texas. Dredging technologies helped to stimulate the growth of _____. Railroad construction in the second half of the nineteenth century opened up new lands to urban development. In 1880 there were only 11 towns of 4,000 or more people in all of Texas. Following the rapid expansion of the railroads in the 1880s and 1890s, the number rose to 36. By 1910, when the railroad network of 13,110 miles was completed, Texas had 49 towns with a population of 4,000 or more. By 1920, 5 cities—Dallas, El Paso, Fort Worth, Houston, and San Antonio—had populations of more than 50,000. Later technological breakthroughs in _____ would reinforce the population grid laid out by the railroads.

Answer 87

1. along the Gulf Coast
2. port cities such as Houston, Galveston, Corpus Christi, and Brownsville
3. transportation, such as cars and air travel,

Question 88

Understanding the complexity of the government and politics in Texas today demands having some sense of how Texas’s _____ [how many?] major metropolitan areas compare with each other (see Tables 1.4 and 1.5).

Answer 88

1. three

Question 89

Immigration has long been an important part of Texas culture. Texas’s southern border with Mexico is 1,254 miles long—longer than the border of any of the other states that share a border with Mexico. Prior to 1836 most of Texas was part of Mexico and many people living in the state were of Mexican descent. even today, many Mexican Americans in the state can trace their lineage back to the time when Mexico controlled Texas. After _____, the U.S.–Mexico border tightened considerably. Traditionally, residents in border areas could _____ [could or could not cross the border without much effort?]. With increasing border and security concerns, border crossings become more difficult. one of Texas’s ongoing debates is over the most effective ways to ensure border security and respect the diversity of the state’s history.

Answer 89

1. the terrorist attacks of September 11

2. cross the border easily

Question 90

In the 2014 campaign for lieutenant governor, Houston state senator Dan Patrick campaigned against the incumbent David Dewhurst by running on a platform of _____. Patrick emphasized that the federal government was _____. He further claimed that lack of border security has brought third world diseases into the state. In his campaign he promised to spend more state money on border security since, Patrick claimed, the federal government was not doing its job. Though Lieutenant Governor Dewhurst increased funds for border security, he could not overcome the strong _____ influence in the Republican primary and was trounced by Patrick in a runoff on May 27, 2014 by a nearly 2-to-1 margin.

Answer 90

1. stopping the “illegal invasion” of immigrants into Texas
2. not enforcing border security by allowing so many immigrants into Texas
3. Tea Party

Question 91

Patrick also gained headlines by debating then San Antonio mayor Julian Castro about immigration reform. Castro accused Patrick of dog whistle politics, that is, _____. Castro argued that there is no “invasion” of immigrants. He said that _____ [what did he say about illegal immigrants?]. Castro argued that those in the country illegally, especially those in college or serving in the military, should be _____. Patrick disagreed, claiming that those in the country illegally should go to the “back of the line” and wait their turns. He also suggested that granting citizenship to illegal immigrants would only encourage more illegal immigration. Patrick opposed _____ [what kind of illegal immigration policy]. More illegal immigration, according to Patrick, will _____. Patrick also opposed in-state tuition for undocumented immigrants. He claimed that citizens should be given the priority and illegal immigrants should not have this benefit.

Answer 91

1. appealing to exclusionist and racist rhetoric in order to win the election
2. illegal immigration has dropped from its peak levels and undocumented immigrants are essential to the state’s economy
3. allowed a path to citizenship
4. “amnesty,” the notion of allowing illegal immigrants the opportunity to eventually become U.S. citizens
5. strain the state budget on education and health care

Question 92

The debate in Texas mirrors the national debate regarding how best to deal with immigration. There are approximately 11 million undocumented or “illegal” immigrants in the United States, and about 2 million of those immigrants are in Texas, mostly _____. In recent years, the number of undocumented people from Central American countries other than Mexico has grown considerably. In 2014 there was a disturbing development: _____.

Answer 92

1. of Latino descent and mostly from Mexico

2. a significant increase in illegal immigration by children entering the United States without parents

Question 93

Some claim Patrick’s views will turn off the growing Latino population because the harsh anti-immigrant rhetoric is perceived as anti-Latino. on the other hand, Patrick claimed that he _____ [supports what exactly?]. Castro and others have argued that the United States is a nation of immigrants and there must be a comprehensive way to reform the problem. They say that businesses in Texas _____ [are affected how by illegal immigration?] and as long as jobs are available, immigrants will find a way to make it to the United States despite expensive border security efforts. Patrick countered that _____ first before any discussion of how to deal with those in the country illegally takes place.

Answer 93

1. supports legal immigration and just wants to stop illegal immigration
2. greatly benefit from the hard work of undocumented immigrants
3. the border must be secured

Question 94

[critical thinking questions] 1. Do you agree with Dan Patrick or Julian Castro? Should illegal immigrants be given a pathway to citizenship or be sent back to their country of origin?

Answer 94

1. Julian Castro. People here illegally are, according to UN study, basically refugees. They are not seeking to exploit America. They are here because they want to flee violence. In addition, studies indicate that illegal immigrants commit fewer crimes than legal citizens and that illegal immigrants expand the economy. By creating both new demand and supply for products, they make America larger. They even fulfill jobs that most Americans don’t want. For all of this, they should be legalized and given every opportunity as every other citizen of the US, and they should never be deported.

Question 95

[critical thinking questions] 2. Is compromise possible on immigration? are the only two options deportations and amnesty?

Answer 95

1. Other possibilities are segregation of illegal immigrants within the country, pushing larger burdens of civil debt onto them, or disadvantaging them in various other ways as to discourage illegal immigration. All of these alternatives are unviable politically, so deportation vs. amnesty is probably the inevitable outcome. However, in theory, one possibility for the US to stop illegal immigrants is to try and repair the countries south of the United States: most people are fleeing their homes not out of choice, but because their conditions are so terrible. Most of the violence in Central America and South America is in part a result of US intervention during the 20th century. By giving aid to these countries and helping them to develop into safer and more economically secure nations, the US could discourage illegal immigration without deportation or amnesty, as people would not feel the need to flee their country as much.

Question 96

Houston, located in Harris County, is the _____ [how large in comparison to Texas’s other cities and the nation as a whole?]. Its consolidated metropolitan area encompasses eight counties, with an estimated population of 6.1 million in 2011. Houston grew by _____ during the first decade of the twenty-first century.

Answer 96

1. largest city in Texas and the fourth-largest city in the United States—with a population of 2.1 million—behind New York, Los Angeles, and Chicago
2. 7.5 percent

Question 97

The city [Houston] originated in 1836 out of _____. The town was named after Sam Houston, the leader of Texas’s army during its war of independence from Mexico. Early settlers came from the South, bringing with them the institution of slavery. As a consequence, _____ was built into the social structure from the outset. For the first half of the twentieth century, African Americans were _____ [treated how in Houston?]. Although not enforced legally, residential segregation divided the city into a number of distinct racially divided neighborhoods for much of the twentieth century

Answer 97

1. the entrepreneurial dreams of two brothers, Augustus Chapman Allen and John Kirby Allen, who sought to create a “great interior commercial emporium of Texas.”
2. segregation
3. either denied or given limited access to a variety of public services such as parks, schools, buses, restrooms, and restaurants

Question 98

In the late nineteenth century, Houston’s economic well-being depended on _____. Railroads played an integral role in placing Houston at the hub of the Texas economy. The opening of _____ further enhanced Houston’s place in the state economy by helping to turn it into the second or third (depending on whose ranking is used) _____ in the United States. But it was oil that fundamentally transformed the Houston area in the twentieth century. _____ [what happened that led to…] making Houston one of the leading energy centers in the world. Today Houston continues to rank _____ in the nation in the manufacture of petroleum equipment.

Answer 98

1. cotton and commerce
2. the Houston Ship Channel
3. deep-water port
4. Oil refineries opened along the ship channel and a petrochemical industry emerged,
5. first

Question 99

By 1930, Houston had become the largest city in Texas, with a population of around 292,000 people. The population continued to expand throughout the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s, assisted by _____. Although the oil bust in the mid-1980s slowed the city’s growth, that growth _____ [did what into the 21st century?].

Answer 99

1. a liberal annexation policy that enabled the city to incorporate into itself many of the outlying suburban areas
2. continued in the early twenty-first century, extending into suburban areas such as Clear Lake City and other urban areas such as Galveston

Question 100

Dallas–Fort Worth The Metroplex is an economic region encompassing the cities of Dallas and Fort Worth, as well as a number of other suburban cities, including _____. The major counties in the area are Dallas, Tarrant, and Collin. The Metroplex is joined together by _____.

Answer 100

1. Arlington (population 375,600), Mesquite (139,629), Garland (233,564), Richardson (103,297), Irving (225,427), Plano (272,068), McKinney (143,223), Carrollton (125,409), Grand Prairie (181,824), Frisco (128,176), and Denton (121,123)
2. a number of interlocking highways running north–south and east–west, and a major international airport that is strategically located in the national air system

Question 101

Dallas was founded as _____ [when and what?]. By the 1850s it had become a retail center servicing the rural areas. By 1870 the population had reached 3,000 people. The coming of _____ made Dallas the first rail crossroads in Texas and transformed forever its place in the state’s economy. Markets now beckoned east and north, encouraging entrepreneurs and merchants to set up shop. _____ became a major cash crop, and the population expanded over threefold to more than 10,000 people in 1880. By the turn of the twentieth century, the city had grown to more than 42,000 people.

Answer 101

1. a trading post in 1841, near where two roads were to be built by the Republic
2. the Houston and Texas Central Railroad in 1871 and the Texas and Pacific Railroad in 1873
3. Cotton

Question 102

As with Houston, the oil economy changed the direction and scope of the city’s [Dallas-FW’s] economic life. With the discovery of oil in east Texas in 1930, Dallas became a major center for petroleum financing. By the end of World War II, the economy had _____. In the 1950s and 1960s _____ were added to the industrial mix, transforming Dallas into the third-largest technology center in the nation. _____ was built from the corporate infrastructure laid down in the 1950s and 1960s. Dallas grew from 844,401 people in 1970 to 904,078 in 1980 to 1,241,162 in 2012.

Answer 102

1. diversified, making Dallas a minor manufacturing center in the nation
2. technology companies such as Ling-Temco-Vought (LTV) and Texas Instruments
3. The high-tech boom of the 1990s

Question 103

Although they are locked together in important ways economically, Dallas and Fort Worth are as different as night and day. Whereas Dallas _____, Fort Worth looks to the West. It is where the West begins in Texas.

Answer 103

1. looks to the East and embodies a more corporate white-collar business culture

Question 104

Fort Worth originated as _____. By 1853 the post had been abandoned as new forts were located to the west. Although _____, population growth was slow through the early 1870s. The spark that enabled the town to begin to prosper was _____. Fort Worth was a convenient place for _____. Cattle buyers established headquarters in the city. Gradually other businesses grew up around these key businesses. Transportation and communication links improved with _____.

Answer 104

1. an army post in 1849
2. settlers took the fort over
3. the rise of the cattle industry
4. cowboys to rest on their cattle drives to Kansas
5. the establishment of stage lines to the west and railroad lines to the north and east

Question 105

By 1900, Fort Worth was served by eight different railroad companies, many of them transporting _____. The two world wars encouraged further economic development in Fort Worth. Over 100,000 troops were trained at Camp Bowie during World War I. World War II brought _____. _____ became the largest manufacturing concern in the city. Between 1900 and 1950 the population grew from 26,668 to 277,047. In 2012, Fort Worth’s population was 777,992. The overall metropolitan area of Dallas–Fort Worth included 6.7 million people in 2011.

Answer 105

1. cattle and cattle-related products to national markets
2. an important air force base and, along with it, the aviation industry
3. The Consolidated Vultee Aircraft Corporation, which was later bought by General Dynamics,

Question 106

San Antonio is located in _____ County, the fourth-largest county in Texas today. San Antonio grew out of _____. In 1773 it became the capital of Spanish Texas, with a population of around 2,100 people. Because of _____, the population declined to about 800 people by 1846. On Texas’s entry into the Union, however, the population took off, reaching 3,488 in 1850 and 8,235 in 1860. By the Civil War, San Antonio was the _____ city in Texas.

Answer 106

1. Bexar
2. the Spanish presidio San Antonio de Bexar, which was founded in 1718
3. the threats posed by Native Americans and Mexicans after the Texas Revolution
4. largest

Question 107

Following the Civil War, San Antonio grew rapidly, stimulated by _____. By 1880 the population had grown to more than 20,000 people, mostly Anglo Americans from southern states. The population continued to grow through the first two decades of the twentieth century, reaching 161,000 by 1920. Mexican immigration increased significantly following _____. By midcentury San Antonio had become a unique blend of _____ cultures. Population growth slowed down in the 1930s but picked up again during World War II, reaching over 408,000 in 1950. Major military bases came to dot the landscape around San Antonio. By 1960 the population topped 587,000 people.

Answer 107

1. the building of the San Antonio Railroad in 1877
2. the Mexican Revolution of 1910 and the building of a city infrastructure that provided paved roads, utilities, water, telephones, and hospitals
3. Latino, German, and southern Anglo American

Question 108

Today, San Antonio is Texas’s second-largest city. The population of the city was estimated to be 1,382,951 in 2012, and the San Antonio metropolitan area as a whole had a population of 2,234,003, making it the thirty-first-largest metropolitan area in the country. San Antonio’s population has become increasingly _____. Approximately 63.2 percent of the people are Hispanic, 29 percent are Anglo American, and 6 percent are African American.

Answer 108

1. Hispanic

2.

Question 109

Unlike Houston or Dallas, San Antonio _____. The economy rests on four legs: _____.

Answer 109

1. lacks high-paying manufacturing jobs, and average metropolitan income is lower than in Houston and Dallas
2. national military bases, educational institutions, tourism, and a large medical research complex

Question 110

In this chapter, we have studied the political culture of Texas and seen how the state has been transformed by economic and demographic shifts over the past hundred years. Three great technological revolutions have reshaped the economic life of the state. The first _____ [did what?]. The second _____. The third _____. Accompanying and fueling these economic revolutions have been ongoing demographic changes, which have redefined who the “typical” Texan is and where this person lives. No longer can it be said that a “typical” Texan is simply an extension of white American culture rooted in southern tradition. No longer does this person reside in a small town, living life close to the land much as his or her ancestors did. Like the economy, the people of Texas have _____. Increasing numbers of Latinos from Mexico and whites from other parts of the United States have created _____ throughout the state. These cultures have come together in the big metropolitan areas across Texas.

Answer 110

1. —based on the production of agricultural products such as cotton and cattle and on the newly built railroad system—defined economic life in the latter decades of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries
2. —based on the production of oil and the industries that oil made possible—dominated the economy well into the second half of the twentieth century
3. —the era of high tech—has transformed the state by diversifying its economy and tying it closely to the growing international economy
4. been diversified
5. a new melting pot of cultures and concerns

Question 111

[for critical analysis] 1. In what ways are California and Texas similar in terms of demographic makeup? How are they different?

Answer 111

1. Both have large Latino populations.

Question 112

[for critical analysis] 2. In what ways will Texas politics change in the future based on its racial and ethnic makeup?

Answer 112

1. It will become more centered around appealing to those demographics, as the need for the black vote and the Latino vote to win elections will increase. This will likely make future politics more concerned with ensuring that there is equal opportunity and environmental conditions for Latinos and blacks.

Question 113

As we have seen in this chapter, the majority of Texans today continue to view government and politics in Texas through the lens of _____. There is a tendency in the political culture to defer to _____. But this deferential politics is checked by _____. As a result, in Texas, government is often perceived as something that _____ [does what with regard to individual liberty / collective goals?].

Answer 113

1. a political culture dominated by both traditionalistic and individualistic values
2. leaders in positions of authority
3. a healthy suspicion of giving too much power to those in authority
4. gets in the way of our individual liberty rather than something through which we accomplish collective objectives

Question 114

Two notions of equality also play important roles in the political culture of Texas. First, there is the idea of equality of opportunity. This aspect of equality is deeply rooted in _____. The job of government is to treat individuals _____. _____ [how many?] Texans believe that it is the task of state government to redistribute resources from the rich to the poor, ensuring some equality of result.

Answer 114

1. Texas’s traditional individualistic political culture
2. fairly and to ensure them a fair chance to make it on their own through their own skills and initiative
3. Few

Question 115

In addition to equality of opportunity, political equality has been an issue in Texas politics, with _____. Debates over the meaning of equal participation and representation at all levels of state government have reshaped the broad contours of political life in Texas and given rise to one of the bitterest and most controversial issues to face the state legislature in recent decades: _____.

Answer 115

1. the growing importance of African American and Latino minorities in the state
2. congressional and legislative redistricting

Question 116

The ideals of democratic self-government are enshrined in various constitutions under which Texas has operated since the days of the Republic. The people are formally given a number of important roles to play in the political process, including _____. As we will see, however, the actual operations of state government and politics tend to work in _____ ways. Arcane rules in the legislative and executive branches allow power to _____. Elections of judges politicize their selection in a way unimaginable in national politics. Well-funded special-interest groups have been able to exert their influence on elections in Texas and to penetrate the legislative process. The rise to power of the Republican Party in the state may be best understood as _____.

Answer 116

1. choosing the members of all three branches of government and approving constitutional amendments
2. seemingly undemocratic
3. concentrate in the hands of a few individuals
4. the triumph of a new set of interests that have successfully displaced those attached to the traditional Democratic Party

Question 117

Texans in general and Texas political leaders in particular may be committed to the idea of democracy. The Texas Constitution may enshrine the values of democratic self-government. As we will see, however, the actual operations of Texas politics and government raise serious questions about _____. The tension between _____ in Texas may come to play an important role in restructuring the political system as it responds to ongoing economic and demographic change in the state.

Answer 117

1. what kind of democracy the state really is

2. the ideal and reality of democracy

Question 118

[for critical analysis] How would one describe Texas political culture? What patterns of Texas politics reflect its political culture?

Answer 118

1. Individualistic. Government is seen as a force in opposition to the individual. Its influence is to be minimized except to enshrine the state in the particular moral attitudes necessary for its evangelical base, such as maintaining an interfering government to prevent abortions and to discriminate against LGBTQ people.

Question 119

[for critical analysis] How has the diverse geography of Texas affected its development?

Answer 119

1. Texas’s immense size has led to the development of multiple different competing political subcultures.

Question 120

[for critical analysis] During the 1980s the price of oil fell from almost $35 a barrel to $10 a barrel, seriously harming Texas’s economy. To what extent has the economy of Texas changed so that devastation in one industry will not have the effect that the failure of the oil industry did in the 1980s?

Answer 120

1. It has diversified heavily, despite continuing reliance on oil. This diversification includes moving to a more high-tech economy.

Question 121

[for critical analysis] How did the population of Texas change during the 1990s? What is its racial and ethnic composition? How do these changes complicate the idea of the “typical” Texan?

Answer 121

1. It became a lot less white.
2. It is more Latino, more mixed, and more urban.
3. The typical Texan is a commingling of different things that are not exactly homogenous; ie, there is no longer a typical Texan, demographically and ethnically.

Question 122

[for critical analysis] Based on the population growth, urbanization, and economic change of the last two decades, what do the next two decades hold for Texas? Which areas will grow in population, and will government be ready for that growth? What can or should government do to maintain and strengthen the economy of Texas?

Answer 122

1. Increasing concern about immigrants and their effect on Texas. More polarization. Peak oil may create another economic crisis, depending on how things go.
2. Urban areas primarily; government is designed to minimize its involvement in public life. This may likely lead to a government unprepared for the infrastructure costs of an expanding and increasingly urban population.
3. Become more centralized and collectivist. Start collecting graduated taxes and drop the idea of rugged individualism, before the polarization can get out of hand.

Question 123

[for critical analysis] In Texas political culture, governmental power is often seen as a threat to individual liberty. However, Texans also tend to value equality of opportunity and political equality for all citizens. To what extent should the Texas state government use its power to ensure equality?

Answer 123

1. Much more than it currently does. The landed elites of Texas are entirely antithetical to equality of opportunity. Racial minorities do have the same opportunities as whites and most whites do have the same opportunities as the rich corporate executives. By graduating taxes and promoting a more regulated and welfarist environment, the state could better ensure equality of opportunity.