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Peeb MCAT > Biology Quicksheets > Flashcards

Biology Quicksheets Flashcards

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MCAT flashcards
1
Q

Nucleus

A

Contains all of the genetic material necessary for replication of the cell

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2
Q

Mitochondrion

A

Location of the many metabolic processes (Pyruvate dehydrogenase, citric acid cycle, electron transport chain, oxidative phosphorylation, beta oxidation, some of gluconeogenesis, urea cycle) And ATP production

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3
Q

Lysosomes

A

Membrane-bound structures containing hydrolytic enzymes capable of breaking down many different substrates

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4
Q

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

A

Interconnected membranous structure with ribosomes studding the outside; site of synthesis of proteins destined for insertion into a membrane or secretion

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5
Q

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

A

Interconnected membranous structure where lipid synthesis and detoxification occurs

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6
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

Membrane-bound sacs where post translational modification of proteins occurs

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7
Q

Peroxisomes

A

Organelle containing hydrogen peroxide; site of beta oxidation of very long chain fatty acid’s

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8
Q

Fluid Mosaic model and membrane traffic

A

Phospholipid bilayer with cholesterol and embedded proteins, exterior with hydrophilic phosphate head groups and interior with hydrophobic fatty acid’s

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9
Q

Three basic tenets of cell theory

A

All living things are composed of cells, the cell is the basic functional unit of life cells arise only from pre-existing cells

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10
Q

What is the new fourth tenet of cell theory

A

Cells carry genetic information in the form of DNA, DNA is passed on from parent to daughter cells

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11
Q

Nucleus: eukaryotes versus prokaryotes

A

Eukaryotes contain membrane-bound organelle’s such as a nucleus, prokaryotes are simpler cells without a nucleus

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12
Q

What are the three shapes of prokaryotic bacteria

A

Cocci – spherical bacteria
Bacilli – rod shaped bacteria
Spirilli– spiral shaped bacteria

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13
Q

Cell envelope

A

Made of cell wall and a cell membrane

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14
Q

2 classifications for bacteria cell wall

A

Gram positive– Large quantities of peptidoglycan in the cell wall
Gram negative – smaller quantities of peptidoglycan with lipopolysaccharides

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15
Q

Flagella

A

Eukaryotic flagella contain a basal body that serves as the engine for motion

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16
Q

How do you prokaryotes divide

A

Binary fission, The circular chromosome replicates and attaches to the cell wall, the plasma membrane and cell wall grow along the midline forming daughter cells

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17
Q

Stages of cell division

A

G1- cell increases organelles and cytoplasm
S- DNA replication
G2- same as G1
M- cell divides in two

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18
Q

Describe meiosis one

A

Two pairs of sister chromatids form tetrads during prophase one, crossing over leads to genetic recombination in prophase one, homologous chromosomes separate during metaphase one

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19
Q

Describe meiosis two

A

Essentially identical to mitosis but no replication, meiosis occurs in spermatogenesis and oogenesis

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20
Q

What are the four stages of early development

A

Cleavage – mitotic division’s
Implantation – embryo implants during blastula stage
Gastrulation – ectoderm endoderm and mesoderm form
Neurulation - germ layers develop A nervous system

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21
Q

Ectoderm

A

Nervous system, epidermis, lens of eye, inner ear

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22
Q

Endoderm

A

Lining of the digestive tract, lungs, liver and pancreas

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23
Q

Mesoderm

A

Muscles, skeleton, circulatory system, gonads, kidney

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24
Q

Livers roles in homeostasis

A

Gluconeogenesis
glycogenolysis,
processing of nitrogenous waste like urea, detoxification of wastes chemicals and drugs,
storage of iron and vitamin a,
synthesis of bile and blood proteins,
Beta oxidation of fatty acid‘s to Ketones, interconversion of carbohydrates, fats, and amino acids

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25
Q

Layers of the skin

A 
Stratum corneum
Stratham lucidum
Stratum granulosum
Stratham Spinosum
Stratham basal is
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26
Q

Steps of Osmo regulation

A

Filtration, secretion, reabsorption

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27
Q

Filtration

A

At the glomerulus, filtrate which is fluid and small solutes will pass through passively

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28
Q

Secretion

A

Secretion of acid’s, bases, ions from intestinal flu it to filtrate. Maintains the pH, concentration of potassium, and concentration of waste. Can be passive or active

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29
Q

Reabsorption

A

Essential substances and water flow from filtrate to blood. Enabled by osmolarity gradient and selective permeability of the walls. Can be passive or active

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30
Q

Aldosterone

A

Stimulates sodium reabsorption, potassium and hydrogen ion secretion, increasing water reabsorption, blood volume, and blood pressure
Secreted from adrenal cortex, regulated by the renin angiotensin aldosterone system

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31
Q

ADH

A

Vasopressin
Increases collecting ducts permeability to water to increase water reabsorption, is secreted from posterior pituitary with high concentration of solute in the blood

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32
Q

Kidneys

A

Regulate concentration of salt and water in the blood their functional unit is the nephron

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33
Q

Hormones of the anterior pituitary

A

Flat Peg
Follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone, prolactin, endorphins, growth hormone

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34
Q

Follicle-stimulating hormone

A

Stimulates follicle maturation, spermatogenesis

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35
Q

Luteinizing hormone

A

Stimulates ovulation, testosterone synthesis

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36
Q

Adrenocorticotropic hormone

A

Stimulates adrenal cortex to make and secrete glucocorticoids

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37
Q

Thyroid stimulating hormone

A

Stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid hormones

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38
Q

Prolactin

A

Stimulates milk production and secretion

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39
Q

Endorphins

A

Inhibits the perception of pain in the brain

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40
Q

Growth hormone

A

Stimulates bone and muscle growth, Lipolysis

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41
Q

Hormones from the hypothalamus

Where are they stored?

A

Oxytocin and anti-diuretic hormone

Posterior pituitary

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42
Q

Oxytocin

A

Stimulates uterine contractions during labor, milk secretion during lactation

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43
Q

Antidiuretic hormone

A

Stimulates water reabsorption in the kidneys

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44
Q

Hormones from the thyroid

A

Thyroid hormones T3 and T4, calcitonin

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45
Q

Thyroid hormones T3 and T4

A

Stimulates metabolic activity

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46
Q

Calcitonin

A

Decreases blood calcium levels

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47
Q

Parathyroid hormone

A

Increases blood calcium level

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48
Q

Hormones from the adrenal cortex

A

Glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids

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49
Q

Glucocorticoids

A

Increases blood glucose level and decreases proteins synthesis, anti-inflammatory

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50
Q

Mineralocorticoids

A

Increases sodium and water reabsorption in kidneys

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51
Q

Hormones from the adrenal Medulla

A

Epinephrine and norepinephrine

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52
Q

Epinephrine and norepinephrine

A

Increases blood glucose level and heart rate

53
Q

Hormones from the pancreas

A

Glucagon, insulin, somatostatin

54
Q

Glucagon

A

Stimulates conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver, increases blood glucose

55
Q

Insulin

A

Lowers blood glucose, increases glycogen stores

56
Q

Somatostatin

A

Suppresses the secretion of glucagon and insulin

57
Q

Hormone from the testes

A

Testosterone – maintains male secondary sex characteristics

58
Q

Hormones from the ovary and placenta

A

Estrogen and progesterone

59
Q

Estrogen

A

Maintenance female secondary sex characteristics

60
Q

Progesterone

A

Promotes growth and maintenance of endometrium

61
Q

Hormone from the pineal gland

A

Melatonin – regulates sleep wake cycles

62
Q

Hormone from the heart

A

Atrial natriuretic peptide– Involved in Osmo regulation and vasodilation

63
Q

Hormone from the thymus

A

Thymosin – stimulates T cell development

64
Q

Four stages of menstrual cycle

A

Follicular – FSH causes growth of a follicle
Population – LH causes follicle to release egg
luteal – corpus luteum forms
Menstruation – endometrial lining sheds

65
Q

Resting potential

A

Three sodium pumped out for every two potassium pump in

66
Q

Action potential

A

Stimulus acts on a neuron depolarizing the membrane of the cell body

67
Q

Impulse propagation

A

Depolarization is when sodium rushes into the axon, it is followed by repolarization when potassium rushes out of the axon along the nerve axon

68
Q

Synapse

A

Voltage gated calcium channels open and calcium goes into the cell
Vesicles fuse with presynaptic membrane sending the Nero transmitter across the synaptic cleft, then the neurotransmitter binds to receptors on the post synaptic membrane triggering the depolarization

69
Q

What are all of the branches of the peripheral nervous system

A

Sensory and motor
Motor – somatic and autonomic
Autonomic – parasympathetic and sympathetic

70
Q

What are the four steps of action potential and describe

A

Rest- all of the gates are closed except for leak channels
Depolarization – sodium gates open
Repolarization – sodium gates in activate and potassium gates open
Hyperpolarization – all gates closed

71
Q

Sarcomere

A

Contractile unit of the fibers in skeletal muscle, contains thin Actin and thick myosin filaments

72
Q

Steps of sarcomere contraction

A

Initiation, sarcomere shortening, relaxation

73
Q

Initiation of contraction

A

Depolarization of a neuron leads to an action potential

74
Q

Sarcomere shortening of contraction

A

Sarco plasmic reticulum releases calcium, calcium binds to troponin on the actin filament, tropomyosin shifts exposing myosin binding sites, myosin binds, ATPase activity allows Myosin to pull thin filaments towards the center of the each zone and then ATP causes dissociation

75
Q

Relaxation of contraction

A

Calcium is pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum

76
Q

Osteoblast

A

Builds bone

77
Q

Osteoclast

A

Breaks down bone

78
Q

Re-formation of bone

A

In organic items are absorbed from the blood for use in bone

79
Q

Degradation of bone

A

In organic ions are released into the blood

80
Q

What is the path of circulation through the heart

A

Superior and inferior vena cava – right atrium - right ventricle – pulmonary arteries - lungs -pulmonary veins - left atrium -left ventricle -aorta -body

81
Q

Three portal systems of the body

What is a portal system?

A

Hepatic – liver, kidney, brain – Hypophyseal

Blood travels through an extra capillary bed before returning to the heart

82
Q

Foramen ovale

A

Connects right and left atria

83
Q

Ductus arteriosus

A

Connects pulmonary artery to aorta. Along with foramen ovale, shunts blood away from the lungs

84
Q

Ductus venosus

A

Connects umbilical vein to inferior vena cava, connecting umbilical circulation to central circulation

85
Q

Plasma

A

Aqueous mixture of nutrients, waste, hormones , blood proteins, gases, and salts

86
Q

Erythrocytes

A

Carry oxygen via hemoglobin

87
Q

Hemoglobin

A

Has four subunits which carry oxygen and carbon dioxide iron controls binding and releasing

88
Q

What are the factors that shift the oxygen dissociation curve to the right

A

Increase in temperature, decrease in pH, increase in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide, Bohr effect

89
Q

Platelets

A

Release thromboplastin, which along with cofactors calcium and vitamin K converts in active prothrombin to active thrombin
Thrombin converts fibrinogen into fibrin which surrounds blood cells to form a clot

90
Q

Blood typing

A

Antigens are located on the surface of red blood cells

91
Q

Blood type a

A

A antigen, anti-B antibodies, can donate to A or AB blood type or receive from A or O

92
Q

Blood type B

A

B antigen, anti A antibodies, donates to B or AB, receives from B or O

93
Q

AB blood type

A

A and B antigen, no antibodies, donates only to AB, receives from all blood types

94
Q

O blood type

A

No antigen, anti A and anti B antibodies, donates to all, receives only O

95
Q

Where does gas exchange occurs across

A

Thin walls of the alveoli

96
Q

What kind of blood enters the pulmonary capillaries

A

Deoxygenated

97
Q

Describe what happens to inhaled oxygen

A

It will diffuse down its gradient into the capillaries where it binds with hemoglobin and returns to the heart CO2 from the tissues diffuses from the capillaries to the alveoli and is exhaled

98
Q

Describe fetal respiration

A

Fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen then adult hemaglobin. Gas and nutrient exchange occur cross the placenta

99
Q

Where is salivary amylase produced and what does it do

A

Salivary gland’s, converts starch to maltose

100
Q

Where is pancreatic amylase made and where does it function and what does it do

A

Pancreas, small intestine, starch to maltose hydrolysis reaction

101
Q

Maltese, sucrose, lactase

A

Produced in intestinal glands, functions in the small intestine
Convert maltose into two glucoses
Converts sucrose into glucose and fructose
Converts Lactose into glucose and galactose

102
Q

How are lipids digested

A

When Chyme is present, the duodenum secretes the hormone cholecystokinin into the blood which will stimulate the secretion of pancreatic enzymes and bile. The bile is made in the liver and will emulsify fat in the small intestine. Lipase is made in the pancreas and will hydrolyze lipids in the small intestine

103
Q

What enzyme is made from the gastric glands specifically from the chief cells in the stomach

A

Pepsin – hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds

104
Q

What enzymes are made from the pancreas

A

Trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidases a and B

105
Q

Trypsin

A

Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds and converts chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin

106
Q

Chymotrypsin

A

Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds

107
Q

Carboxypeptidases a and B

A

Hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at Cterminus

108
Q

Enzymes made in the intestinal glands

A

Amino peptidase, dipeptidase, Entero peptidase

109
Q

Aminopeptidase

A

Hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at N terminus

110
Q

Dipeptidase

A

Hydrolyze is part of amino acids

111
Q

Enteropeptidase

A

Converts tripsinogen And pro carboxypeptidases to the active form

112
Q

How does the body distinguish between self and non-self

A

Antigens

113
Q

What are the two types of B cells

A

Memory cells – remember antigen, speed up secondary response

Plasma cells – Macon release antibodies to induce antigen phagocytosis

114
Q

Active immunity

A

Antibodies are produced during an immune response

115
Q

Passive immunity

A

Antibodies produced by one organism are transferred to another organism

116
Q

Cell mediated immunity

A

T lymphocytes

117
Q

Humoral immunity

A

B cells

118
Q

Four types of T cells

A

Cytotoxic T cells – destroy cells directly
Helper T cells – activate B and T cells and macrophages by secreting lymphokines
Memory cells
Suppressor T cells – regulate B cells and T cells to decrease anti-antigen activity

119
Q

Non-specific immune response

A

Includes skin, passages lined with cilia, macrophages, inflammatory response, interferons

120
Q

Interferon

A

Pro Tien that helps prevent the spread of the virus

121
Q

Where do lymph vessels meet

A

At the thoracic duct in the upper chest and neck, draining into the left subclavian vein of the cardiovascular system

122
Q

Lymph

A

Excess interstitial fluid

123
Q

Lacteal

A

Collect fats by absorbing chylomicrons in the small intestine

124
Q

Lymph nodes

A

Swellings along the vessels with phagocytic cells like macrophages, they remove foreign particles from lymph

125
Q

cysterna chyli

A

empties lymph from the lower half of the body to the thoracic duct

126
Q

spleen

A

has white blood cells, filters blood and removes old cells

127
Q

thymus

A

site of T cell maturation

128
Q

lacteals

A

transport fats from the digestive system into the bloodstream, located in villi of small intestine, turns fats into chylomicron balls to transport easier into lymph system

Peeb MCAT (7 decks)

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