Biology Quicksheets Flashcards
Nucleus
Contains all of the genetic material necessary for replication of the cell
Mitochondrion
Location of the many metabolic processes (Pyruvate dehydrogenase, citric acid cycle, electron transport chain, oxidative phosphorylation, beta oxidation, some of gluconeogenesis, urea cycle) And ATP production
Lysosomes
Membrane-bound structures containing hydrolytic enzymes capable of breaking down many different substrates
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Interconnected membranous structure with ribosomes studding the outside; site of synthesis of proteins destined for insertion into a membrane or secretion
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Interconnected membranous structure where lipid synthesis and detoxification occurs
Golgi apparatus
Membrane-bound sacs where post translational modification of proteins occurs
Peroxisomes
Organelle containing hydrogen peroxide; site of beta oxidation of very long chain fatty acid’s
Fluid Mosaic model and membrane traffic
Phospholipid bilayer with cholesterol and embedded proteins, exterior with hydrophilic phosphate head groups and interior with hydrophobic fatty acid’s
Three basic tenets of cell theory
All living things are composed of cells, the cell is the basic functional unit of life cells arise only from pre-existing cells
What is the new fourth tenet of cell theory
Cells carry genetic information in the form of DNA, DNA is passed on from parent to daughter cells
Nucleus: eukaryotes versus prokaryotes
Eukaryotes contain membrane-bound organelle’s such as a nucleus, prokaryotes are simpler cells without a nucleus
What are the three shapes of prokaryotic bacteria
Cocci – spherical bacteria
Bacilli – rod shaped bacteria
Spirilli– spiral shaped bacteria
Cell envelope
Made of cell wall and a cell membrane
2 classifications for bacteria cell wall
Gram positive– Large quantities of peptidoglycan in the cell wall
Gram negative – smaller quantities of peptidoglycan with lipopolysaccharides
Flagella
Eukaryotic flagella contain a basal body that serves as the engine for motion
How do you prokaryotes divide
Binary fission, The circular chromosome replicates and attaches to the cell wall, the plasma membrane and cell wall grow along the midline forming daughter cells
Stages of cell division
G1- cell increases organelles and cytoplasm
S- DNA replication
G2- same as G1
M- cell divides in two
Describe meiosis one
Two pairs of sister chromatids form tetrads during prophase one, crossing over leads to genetic recombination in prophase one, homologous chromosomes separate during metaphase one
Describe meiosis two
Essentially identical to mitosis but no replication, meiosis occurs in spermatogenesis and oogenesis
What are the four stages of early development
Cleavage – mitotic division’s
Implantation – embryo implants during blastula stage
Gastrulation – ectoderm endoderm and mesoderm form
Neurulation - germ layers develop A nervous system
Ectoderm
Nervous system, epidermis, lens of eye, inner ear
Endoderm
Lining of the digestive tract, lungs, liver and pancreas
Mesoderm
Muscles, skeleton, circulatory system, gonads, kidney
Livers roles in homeostasis
Gluconeogenesis
glycogenolysis,
processing of nitrogenous waste like urea, detoxification of wastes chemicals and drugs,
storage of iron and vitamin a,
synthesis of bile and blood proteins,
Beta oxidation of fatty acid‘s to Ketones, interconversion of carbohydrates, fats, and amino acids
Layers of the skin
Stratum corneum Stratham lucidum Stratum granulosum Stratham Spinosum Stratham basal is
Steps of Osmo regulation
Filtration, secretion, reabsorption
Filtration
At the glomerulus, filtrate which is fluid and small solutes will pass through passively
Secretion
Secretion of acid’s, bases, ions from intestinal flu it to filtrate. Maintains the pH, concentration of potassium, and concentration of waste. Can be passive or active
Reabsorption
Essential substances and water flow from filtrate to blood. Enabled by osmolarity gradient and selective permeability of the walls. Can be passive or active
Aldosterone
Stimulates sodium reabsorption, potassium and hydrogen ion secretion, increasing water reabsorption, blood volume, and blood pressure
Secreted from adrenal cortex, regulated by the renin angiotensin aldosterone system
ADH
Vasopressin
Increases collecting ducts permeability to water to increase water reabsorption, is secreted from posterior pituitary with high concentration of solute in the blood
Kidneys
Regulate concentration of salt and water in the blood their functional unit is the nephron
Hormones of the anterior pituitary
Flat Peg
Follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone, prolactin, endorphins, growth hormone
Follicle-stimulating hormone
Stimulates follicle maturation, spermatogenesis
Luteinizing hormone
Stimulates ovulation, testosterone synthesis
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
Stimulates adrenal cortex to make and secrete glucocorticoids
Thyroid stimulating hormone
Stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid hormones
Prolactin
Stimulates milk production and secretion
Endorphins
Inhibits the perception of pain in the brain
Growth hormone
Stimulates bone and muscle growth, Lipolysis
Hormones from the hypothalamus
Where are they stored?
Oxytocin and anti-diuretic hormone
Posterior pituitary
Oxytocin
Stimulates uterine contractions during labor, milk secretion during lactation
Antidiuretic hormone
Stimulates water reabsorption in the kidneys
Hormones from the thyroid
Thyroid hormones T3 and T4, calcitonin
Thyroid hormones T3 and T4
Stimulates metabolic activity
Calcitonin
Decreases blood calcium levels
Parathyroid hormone
Increases blood calcium level
Hormones from the adrenal cortex
Glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids
Glucocorticoids
Increases blood glucose level and decreases proteins synthesis, anti-inflammatory
Mineralocorticoids
Increases sodium and water reabsorption in kidneys
Hormones from the adrenal Medulla
Epinephrine and norepinephrine
Epinephrine and norepinephrine
Increases blood glucose level and heart rate
Hormones from the pancreas
Glucagon, insulin, somatostatin
Glucagon
Stimulates conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver, increases blood glucose
Insulin
Lowers blood glucose, increases glycogen stores
Somatostatin
Suppresses the secretion of glucagon and insulin
Hormone from the testes
Testosterone – maintains male secondary sex characteristics
Hormones from the ovary and placenta
Estrogen and progesterone
Estrogen
Maintenance female secondary sex characteristics
Progesterone
Promotes growth and maintenance of endometrium
Hormone from the pineal gland
Melatonin – regulates sleep wake cycles
Hormone from the heart
Atrial natriuretic peptide– Involved in Osmo regulation and vasodilation
Hormone from the thymus
Thymosin – stimulates T cell development
Four stages of menstrual cycle
Follicular – FSH causes growth of a follicle
Population – LH causes follicle to release egg
luteal – corpus luteum forms
Menstruation – endometrial lining sheds
Resting potential
Three sodium pumped out for every two potassium pump in
Action potential
Stimulus acts on a neuron depolarizing the membrane of the cell body
Impulse propagation
Depolarization is when sodium rushes into the axon, it is followed by repolarization when potassium rushes out of the axon along the nerve axon
Synapse
Voltage gated calcium channels open and calcium goes into the cell
Vesicles fuse with presynaptic membrane sending the Nero transmitter across the synaptic cleft, then the neurotransmitter binds to receptors on the post synaptic membrane triggering the depolarization
What are all of the branches of the peripheral nervous system
Sensory and motor
Motor – somatic and autonomic
Autonomic – parasympathetic and sympathetic
What are the four steps of action potential and describe
Rest- all of the gates are closed except for leak channels
Depolarization – sodium gates open
Repolarization – sodium gates in activate and potassium gates open
Hyperpolarization – all gates closed
Sarcomere
Contractile unit of the fibers in skeletal muscle, contains thin Actin and thick myosin filaments
Steps of sarcomere contraction
Initiation, sarcomere shortening, relaxation
Initiation of contraction
Depolarization of a neuron leads to an action potential
Sarcomere shortening of contraction
Sarco plasmic reticulum releases calcium, calcium binds to troponin on the actin filament, tropomyosin shifts exposing myosin binding sites, myosin binds, ATPase activity allows Myosin to pull thin filaments towards the center of the each zone and then ATP causes dissociation
Relaxation of contraction
Calcium is pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum
Osteoblast
Builds bone
Osteoclast
Breaks down bone
Re-formation of bone
In organic items are absorbed from the blood for use in bone
Degradation of bone
In organic ions are released into the blood
What is the path of circulation through the heart
Superior and inferior vena cava – right atrium - right ventricle – pulmonary arteries - lungs -pulmonary veins - left atrium -left ventricle -aorta -body
Three portal systems of the body
What is a portal system?
Hepatic – liver, kidney, brain – Hypophyseal
Blood travels through an extra capillary bed before returning to the heart
Foramen ovale
Connects right and left atria
Ductus arteriosus
Connects pulmonary artery to aorta. Along with foramen ovale, shunts blood away from the lungs
Ductus venosus
Connects umbilical vein to inferior vena cava, connecting umbilical circulation to central circulation
Plasma
Aqueous mixture of nutrients, waste, hormones , blood proteins, gases, and salts
Erythrocytes
Carry oxygen via hemoglobin
Hemoglobin
Has four subunits which carry oxygen and carbon dioxide iron controls binding and releasing
What are the factors that shift the oxygen dissociation curve to the right
Increase in temperature, decrease in pH, increase in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide, Bohr effect
Platelets
Release thromboplastin, which along with cofactors calcium and vitamin K converts in active prothrombin to active thrombin
Thrombin converts fibrinogen into fibrin which surrounds blood cells to form a clot
Blood typing
Antigens are located on the surface of red blood cells
Blood type a
A antigen, anti-B antibodies, can donate to A or AB blood type or receive from A or O
Blood type B
B antigen, anti A antibodies, donates to B or AB, receives from B or O
AB blood type
A and B antigen, no antibodies, donates only to AB, receives from all blood types
O blood type
No antigen, anti A and anti B antibodies, donates to all, receives only O
Where does gas exchange occurs across
Thin walls of the alveoli
What kind of blood enters the pulmonary capillaries
Deoxygenated
Describe what happens to inhaled oxygen
It will diffuse down its gradient into the capillaries where it binds with hemoglobin and returns to the heart CO2 from the tissues diffuses from the capillaries to the alveoli and is exhaled
Describe fetal respiration
Fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen then adult hemaglobin. Gas and nutrient exchange occur cross the placenta
Where is salivary amylase produced and what does it do
Salivary gland’s, converts starch to maltose
Where is pancreatic amylase made and where does it function and what does it do
Pancreas, small intestine, starch to maltose hydrolysis reaction
Maltese, sucrose, lactase
Produced in intestinal glands, functions in the small intestine
Convert maltose into two glucoses
Converts sucrose into glucose and fructose
Converts Lactose into glucose and galactose
How are lipids digested
When Chyme is present, the duodenum secretes the hormone cholecystokinin into the blood which will stimulate the secretion of pancreatic enzymes and bile. The bile is made in the liver and will emulsify fat in the small intestine. Lipase is made in the pancreas and will hydrolyze lipids in the small intestine
What enzyme is made from the gastric glands specifically from the chief cells in the stomach
Pepsin – hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
What enzymes are made from the pancreas
Trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidases a and B
Trypsin
Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds and converts chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin
Chymotrypsin
Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
Carboxypeptidases a and B
Hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at Cterminus
Enzymes made in the intestinal glands
Amino peptidase, dipeptidase, Entero peptidase
Aminopeptidase
Hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at N terminus
Dipeptidase
Hydrolyze is part of amino acids
Enteropeptidase
Converts tripsinogen And pro carboxypeptidases to the active form
How does the body distinguish between self and non-self
Antigens
What are the two types of B cells
Memory cells – remember antigen, speed up secondary response
Plasma cells – Macon release antibodies to induce antigen phagocytosis
Active immunity
Antibodies are produced during an immune response
Passive immunity
Antibodies produced by one organism are transferred to another organism
Cell mediated immunity
T lymphocytes
Humoral immunity
B cells
Four types of T cells
Cytotoxic T cells – destroy cells directly
Helper T cells – activate B and T cells and macrophages by secreting lymphokines
Memory cells
Suppressor T cells – regulate B cells and T cells to decrease anti-antigen activity
Non-specific immune response
Includes skin, passages lined with cilia, macrophages, inflammatory response, interferons
Interferon
Pro Tien that helps prevent the spread of the virus
Where do lymph vessels meet
At the thoracic duct in the upper chest and neck, draining into the left subclavian vein of the cardiovascular system
Lymph
Excess interstitial fluid
Lacteal
Collect fats by absorbing chylomicrons in the small intestine
Lymph nodes
Swellings along the vessels with phagocytic cells like macrophages, they remove foreign particles from lymph
cysterna chyli
empties lymph from the lower half of the body to the thoracic duct
spleen
has white blood cells, filters blood and removes old cells
thymus
site of T cell maturation
lacteals
transport fats from the digestive system into the bloodstream, located in villi of small intestine, turns fats into chylomicron balls to transport easier into lymph system
