Biology II Test Three - Body and Body Systems Flashcards
1
Q
Three types of skeletons
A
hydrostatic skeletons, exoskeletons, endoskeletons
2
Q
changes in movement occur because muscles pull against a support structure called the blank system
A
skeletal
3
Q
skeleton found primarily in soft bodied invertebrates, both terrestrial and aquatic
A
hydrostatic
4
Q
worms have a blank muscle and blank muscle to move
A
circular, longitudinal, locomotion
5
Q
jellyfish produce blank in their bell to move
A
pulsations
6
Q
muscular contractions in squids that expel water forcefully through the siphon and the animal shoots backward… this is called blank
A
jetting
7
Q
exoskeletons of arthropods are made by the carbohydrate called
A
chitin
8
Q
these must be shed because they limit body size that provides protection for internal organs and a site for muscle attachment
A
exoskeleton
9
Q
rigid internal skeletons that form the body’s framework and offer surfaces for muscle attachment
A
endoskeletons
10
Q
echinoderms endoskeltons are made of blank
A
calcite
11
Q
the vertebrate endoskeleton is divided into the blank and blank skeletons
A
axial, appendicular
12
Q
skeleton that is the axis of the body
A
axial
13
Q
skeleton that is the limb bones and girdles
A
appendicular
14
Q
this skeleton supports the body and protects internal organs
A
axial
15
Q
skeleton that has pectoral girdle and forelimbs and pelvic girdle and hindlimbs
A
appendicular
16
Q
endoskeletons are made of blank and blank
A
bone, cartilage
17
Q
bone and cartilage are blank tissues
A
living
18
Q
bone and cartilage are blank tissue
A
connective
19
Q
Two cells that produce bone and cartilage
A
mesenchyme and fibroblasts
20
Q
stem cell that differentiates into all other connective tissue cells
A
mesenchyme
21
Q
flexible but resilient connective tissue
A
cartilage
22
Q
cell types that contribute to producing cartilage
A
chondroblasts and chondrocytes
23
Q
these cells make new cartilage
A
chondroblasts
24
Q
these cells maintain existing cartilage
A
chondrocytes
25
hard but resilient connective tissue that is unique to vertebrates
bone
26
three cell types that contribute to producing bone
osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts
27
cells that make new bone
osteoblasts
28
cells that maintain existing bone
osteocytes
29
cells that break down existing bone
osteoclasts
30
Two ways bone can develop
from mesenchyme or from a previous cartilage model
31
osteoblasts blank bone devlopment and change into blank
start, osteocytes
32
osteocytes reside in the blank
bone matrix
33
osteocytes reside in the bone matrix in spaces called blank and communicate through little canals called blank
lacunae, canaliculi
34
the blank lines the outside of the bone to protect it
periosteum
35
bone falls into two categories based on density and structure...
compact bone and spongy bone
36
category of bone that is the outer dense layer and has internal organization called the blank system
compact, Haversian
37
category of bone that has a honeycomb structure and forms the blank inside a thick shell of a compact bone
spongy, epiphyses
38
mammals bones that retain internal blood vessels called
vasular bone
39
bird and fish bones are blank and blank
avascular and acellular
40
vascular bone has blank
osteocytes
41
small forces may not have a great effect on this but larger forces can initiate this by osteoblasts
remodeling
42
are the locations where one bone meets another
joints
43
three types of joints
immovable, slightly movable, freely movable
44
joints that join bones
immovable joints
45
example of immovable joints
cracks that join skull together
46
joints that involve fibrous connective tissue or cartilage
slightly movable joints
47
joints that are also called synovial joints and contain a lubricating fluid and a cavity
freely movable
48
another name fore freely movable joints
synovial joints
49
example of freely movable joint
ball and socket joints
50
these joints permit movement in all directions
ball and socket
51
four types of movable joints
hinge, gliding, combination,
52
joints that allow movement in only one plane
hinge joints
53
joint that permit sliding of one surface over another
gliding
54
example of gliding joint
spine
55
joints that allow rotation and side to side sliding
combination joints
56
two ways that skeletal muscle fibers are attached to the periosteum of bones
directly or by a tendon
57
during contraction of muscle movement the blank remains stationary
origin
58
during muscle movement, the blank is attached to a bone that moves when the muscle contracts
insertion
59
skeletal muscles occur in blank pairs
antagonistic
60
muscle group causing an action
agonist
61
muscle group that counters movement
antagonist
62
the force of contraction remains relatively constant as the muscle shorten in length
isotonic
63
the length of the muscle does not change as force is exerted
isometric contraction
64
each skeletal muscle contains numerous cells called blank
fibers
65
fibers are organized into bundles called
fascicles
66
set of myofibrils are arrange in parallel known as blank
sarcomeres
67
two types of filaments
thick and thin
68
each blank has a thin and thick filament
sarcomere
69
each sarcomere has two blank lines
z
70
myofilaments do not blank
shorten
71
the blank mechanism is how muscles contract
sliding filament
72
a thick filament is composed of several blank subunits packed together
myosin
73
myosin consists of two blank chains wrapped around eachother
polypeptide
74
a blank filament is composed of two chains of blank proteins twisted together in a helix
thin, actin
75
myosin head attaches to the blank site of the actin
binding
76
blank causes the myosin to flex and pull on the actin
atp
77
the blank filaments slide inward
thin
78
in order for muscle to contract, blank must be removed by blank
tropomyosin, troponin
79
a muscle fiber is stimulated to contract by blank neurons
motor
80
neurons cause the muscle fiber membrane to become blank
depolarized
81
neurons cause blank to enter the muscle
sodium
82
a blank unit consists of a motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers it innervates
motor
83
blank is the cumulative increase in the number of motor units stimulated which leads to a stronger contraction
recruitment
84
a muscle stimulated with a single impulse quickly contracts and relaxes
twitch
85
is a cumulative response when a second twitch "piggy-backs" on the first
summation
86
no relaxation between twitches, sustained contraction is produced
tetanus
87
two types of speed of skeletal muscle fibers
slow twitch, fast twitch
88
these muscle fibers are rich in capillaries, mitochondria and myoglobin, they sustain action for long periods of time
slow twitch
89
known as red fibers of muscle fibers
slow twitch
90
known as white fibers of muscle fibers
fast twitch
91
poor in capillaries mitochondira and myoglobin and adapted for rapid power generation muscle fibers
fast twitch
92
locomotion that is produced by appendages that oscillate
appendicular
93
locomotion that is produced by bodies that undulate, pulse, or undergo peristaltic waves
axial
94
Two constraints of movement
gravity, functional drag
95
two types of locomotion in large animals
appendicular, axial
96
water's blank reduces the effects of gravity
buoyancy
97
uses hydraulic propulsion
squid
98
all aquatic vertebrates blank
swim
99
is using the body or its appendages to push against the water
swimming
100
terrestrial locomotion deals mostly with blank
gravity
101
mollusks glide along a path of blank for locomotion
mucus
102
vertebrates and arthropods have a blank body and move forward by pushing against the ground with blank
raised, jointed appendages
103
Flight has evolved in animals blank times and they were
four, insects, pterosaurs, birds, bats
104
animals that use locomotion in air have blank bones and blank transformed into wings
lightened, forelimbs
105
gases diffuse directly into blank organisms
unicellular
106
specialized extensions of tissue that project into water
gills
107
blank gills are outside the body
external
108
two disadvantages of external gills
easily damaged, constant movement to contact oxygen rich water
109
gills of bony fishes are located between the blank and blank cavities
opercular, oral
110
blank function as pumps that alternatively expand
cavities
111
there are blank on each side of a fish's head
gill arches
112
each gill arch is composed of two rows of blank which consist of blank
gill filaments, lamellae
113
blood flow opposite to direction of water and maximizes oxygenation of blood
countercurrent flow
114
air ducts in arthropods are called blank and branch into very small blank
trachea, tracheoles
115
blank can be opened or close by valves that are openings in exoskeleton
spiracles
116
many amphibians use for gas exchange and breathe through skin this way
cutaneous respiration
117
gills were replaced in terrestrial animals because blank is less supportive than blank and blank evaporates
air, water, water
118
the blank minimizes evaporation by moving air through a branched tubular passage
lung
119
pressure is measured in blank
atmospheres
120
air exerts pressure blank
downward
121
lungs of amphibians are formed from outpouchings of the blank
gut
122
frogs have blank breathing
positive pressure
123
amphibians breathe by creating a positive pressure in the blank cavity
buccal
124
reptiles and mammals have blank breathing
negative pressure
125
blank cage expands by muscular contractions
thoracic
126
air rushes inside blank to fill the empty space in neg pressure breathing
lungs
127
empty space in breathing equals blank pressure
lower
128
in and out the same direction is what kind of flow
two directional
129
lungs of mammals are packed with millions of blank
alveoli
130
inhaled air passes through the blank
trachea
131
air bifurcates into the right and left blank
bronchi
132
each lung subdivides into blank
bronchioles
133
extensive capillary network in lungs
bronchioles
134
blank is where gas exchange occurs in lungs
alveoli
135
lungs of birds channel air through very tiny air vessels called blank
parabronchi
136
animal with best respiration
bird
137
birds have blank flow of air
unidirectional
138
in cycle blank of bird lungs inhaled air is drawn from the trachea into posterior air sacs and exhaled into lungs
1
139
in cycle blank of lungs of birds air is drawn from the lungs into anterior air sacs and exhaled through trachea
2
140
blank air does not need to be exhaled before blank air can be inhaled in bird lungs
deoxygenated, oxygenated
141
gas exchange is driven by blank
partial pressures
142
the pressure of one component of a solution
partial pressure
143
veins carry blank blood blank in CO2
deoxygenated, high
144
arteries carry blank blood with blank CO2 concentration
oxygenated, low
145
thoracic volume blank through the contraction of muscles
increases
146
contraction of the external blank muscles expands the rib cage when breathing
intercostal
147
contraction of the blank expands the volume of thorax and lungs
diaphragm
148
this blank pressure draws air into the lungs
negative
149
thorax volume decreases due to blank
elasticity
150
blank are sensitive to blood co2 changes in order to regulate breathing
neurons
151
a rise in Pco2 causes increased production of blank
carbonic acid
152
blank consists of four polypeptide chains
hemoglobin
153
hemoglobin loads up with oxygen in the blank
lungs
154
co2 moves from the blank into the blank
cells, blood
155
sponges, cnidarians, and nematodes lack a blank system
circulatory
156
blank are so thin that the digestive system is used as the circulatory system
nematodes
157
no distinction between circulating and extracellular fluid
open circulatory system
158
fluid in open circulatory systems
hemolymph
159
blank animals require a separate circulatory system for nutrient and waste transport
larger
160
distinct circulatory fluid enclosed in blood vessels and transported away from and back to the heart
close circulatory system
161
blank evolved a true chamber pump heart
fishes
162
first chamber of heart of fish consists of the blank and blank, the second consists of the blank and blank
sinus venosus, atrium, ventricle, conus arteriosus
163
lungs requires a second pumping circuit called blank
double circulation
164
blank circulation moves blood between the heart and lungs
pulmonary
165
blank circulation moves blood between the heart and the rest of the body
systemic
166
the three chambers of a frogs heart
two atria and one ventricle
167
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood blank in frogs
mix
168
amphibians obtain additional oxygen by blank through their skin
diffusion
169
blank and blank have a four chambered heart
mammals and archosaurs
170
this is in the heart and recieves deoxygenated blood from the body and delivers it to the right ventricle which pumps it into the lungs
right atrium
171
the heart has two pairs of blank valves
cardiac
172
valves that guard the openings between atria and ventricles
atrioventricular
173
valves in the heart that guard the exits from the ventricles to the arterial system
semilunar
174
blank valve is on the right and is semilunar
pulmonary
175
blank carries oxygen rich blood from the left ventricle to all parts of the body
aorta
176
the blank empty oxygen poor blood into the right atrium in the heart
vena cavae
177
these deliver deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the right and left lungs
pulmonary arteries
178
blank return oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium
pulmonary veins
179
in the blank circuit, arteries bring deoxygenated blood away from heart
pulmonary
180
in the blank system, the arteries bring oxygenated blood away from heart
systemic
181
blank arteries supply the heart muscle itself
coronary
182
cardiac cycle of rest
diastole
183
cardiac cycle of contraction
systole
184
the heart contracts starting at the blank node
sinoatrial
185
the sinoatrial node is located in the blank atrium and causes heartbeat and acts as a pacemaker
right
186
blank are the finest, microscopic branches of the arterial tree
arterioles
187
blood from arterioles go into blank
capillaries
188
blood is collected into blank which lead to blank
venules, veins
189
four tissue layers of arteries and veins
endothelium, elastic fibers, smooth muscle, connective tissue
190
blank are composed of only a single layer of endothelial cells
capillaries
191
allow exchange of gases and fluid and cell exchange
capillaires
192
contraction of the smooth muscle layer results in blank
vasoconstriction
193
vasoconstriction can result in blank
hypertenstion (high blood pressure)
194
relaxation of the smooth muscle layer results in blank
vasodilation
195
veins and venules return blood to the heart with the help of blank contractions
skeletal muscle
196
myocardial infarcations
heart attack
197
main cause of cardiovascular deaths in US and happens from an insufficient supply of blood to heart
heart attack
198
interference with blood supply to the brain, a cardiovascular disease
stroke
199
blank tissue does not grow back
brain
200
blank output is the volume of blood pumped by each ventricle per minute
cardiac
201
blank increases during exertion because of an increase in both heart rate and stroke volume
cardiac output
202
the blood consists of blank which is the matrix
plasma
203
blank is the second biggest part of blood
red blood cells
204
blank is the third biggest part of blood
platelets
205
blank is the smallest part of blood
white blood cells
206
three functions of circulating blood
transportation, regulation and protection
207
plasma is blank percent water
92
208
five solutes in plasma
nutrients, wastes, hormones, ions, proteins
209
plasma is called blank when proteins are removed
serum
210
blank are also called red blood cells
erythrocytes
211
red blood cells of vertebrates contain blank
hemoglobin
212
a pigment that binds and transports oxygen
hemoglobin
213
these cells in blood are larger than erythrocytes and have nuclei and can migrate out of capillaries
leukocytes
214
cell fragments that pinch off from larger cells in the bone marrow
platelets
215
function in the formation of blood clots
platelets
216
all of the formed elements of blood develop from blank stem cells
pluripotent
217
blank is blood cell production
hematopoiesis
218
red blood cell production is called blank
erythropoiesis
219
maintaining blank balance involves taking and giving water to/from the environment and exchanging solutes which maintains blank
osmotic, homeostasis
220
the measure of a solution's tendency to take in water by osmosis
osmotic pressure
221
the measure of a solution's ability to change the volume of a cell by osmosis
tonicity
222
three types of tonicity
hypertonic, hypotonic, isotonic
223
equal water exchange with surroundings
isotonic
224
water always moves from blank to blank
hypo to hyper
225
organisms that are in osmotic equilibrium with their environment
osmoconformers
226
most marine invertebrates and Chondrichthyes are blank
osmoconformers
227
maintain a constant blood osmolarity different than their environment
osmoregulators
228
most vertebrates are these and all terrestrial animals are these
osmoregulators
229
produced when amino acids and nucleic acids are broken down
nitrogenous wastes
230
in nitrogenous wastes, the blank group is removed which forms blank
amino, ammonia
231
blank are only safe in dilute concentrations, it must be eliminated
nitrogenous wastes
232
excessive accumulation of ammonia derivatives in joints causes blank in humans
gout
233
these animals eliminate ammonia by diffusion via gills
bony fishes and baby amphibians
234
Chondrichthyes, adult amphibians, and mammals convert ammonia into blank which dissolves into blank to get rid of nitrogenous wastes
urea, water
235
birds, reptiles, and insects convert ammonia into the water insoluble blank that uses blank but does not need blank
uric acid, carbon, water
236
a variety of mechanisms have evolved. one is a contractive blank that is used by protists.
vacuoles
237
these pump out water to ensure cell does not burst
vacuoles
238
nitrogenous wastes are excreted through the blank when there is a vacuole present
membrane
239
blank use specialized cells and tubules to get rid of nitrogenous wastes
invertebrates
240
blank are a network of tubes which branch into bulblike blank cells
protonephridia, flame
241
blank remove solutes and excess water from body in flatworms
flame cells
242
blank open to the outside of the body through a pore in flatworms
protonephridia
243
earthworms use blank to get rid of nitrogenous wastes
nephridia
244
there is how many nephridia on each segment
one
245
a series of convoluted tubules that remove excess water and solutes from blood and produce urine
nephridia
246
urine is excreted through a blank in earthworms
pore
247
how insects get rid of nitrogenous wastes
malpighian tubules
248
create an osmotic gradient that draws water into the tubules by osmosis in insects
malpighian tubules
249
blank and blank are secreted into tubules by active transport in insects
h20, K+
250
water and potassium is blank into the open circulatory system through the hindgut
reabsorbed
251
cartilaginous fish are blank to seawater
isotonic
252
shark blood has blank times the amount of urea as a mammal
100
253
the blank concentration in blood is equal to that of the sea water in sharks
solute
254
sharks actually blank the urea instead of excreted
reabsorbs
255
blank are hypotonic to seawater
saltwater bony fish
256
water leaves saltwater bony fish and does blank across its gills
osmosis
257
saltwater bony fish drink a lot of blank
seawater
258
saltwater bony fish have seawater blank that become dissolved in the blank
ions, blood
259
saltwater bony fish actively blank ions across the gill surface
eliminate
260
saltwater bony fishes have blank
kidneys
261
freshwater bony fish are blank to fresh water
hypertonic
262
the blank of freshwater bony fish produces large amounts of dilute urine
kidney
263
freshwater bony fish blank ions across blank
reabsorb, nephrons
264
blank reptiles absorb much of the salt and water in their blood in their kidney
terrestrial
265
terrestrial reptiles move the dilute blank into the blank
urine, cloaca
266
blank is reabsorbed in the cloaca of terrestrial reptiles
water
267
blank and blank are the only vertebrates that can produce urine that is hypertonic
mammals, birds
268
urine is produced from the blood in blank
nephrons
269
blood is carried into the blank of nephron
glomerulus
270
the glomerulus does what
filters out blood
271
filtrate enters the blank in the nephron
bowman's capsule
272
unfiltered blood blanks in the nephron
drains out
273
filtrate moves through the blank in the nephron
renal tubules
274
when filtrate exits the collecting blank it is now blank
duct, urine
275
three step process of nephron function
filtration, reabsorption, secretion
276
blood plasma is filtered out of the glomerulus into the tubule system
filtration
277
selective movement of substances out of the filtrate back into the blood
reabsorption
278
active movement of substances from the blood into the filtrate
secretion
279
three things in urine
hydrogen, potassium, toxins
280
six things reabsorbed in nephron
h2o, na, cl, K, Ca, HCO3
281
kidneys regulate blank balance in the blood by reabsorption and secretion
electrolyte
282
blank eliminate toxins and metabolic wastes
kidneys
283
maintain relatively constant levels of blood, volume, pressure, and osmolarity
kidneys
284
blank hormone is secreted by the blank gland
antidiuretic, pituitary
285
antidiuretic hormone is stimulated by an increase in the blank of blood
osmolarity
286
antidiuretic hormone causes walls of blank tubule and collecting ducts to become more blank to water
distal, permeable
287
antidiuretic hormone blanks reabsorption of water
increases
288
this hormone is secreted by the adrenal cortex
aldosterone
289
the release of aldosterone is stimulated by low levels of blank in the blood
Na+
290
aldosterone causes the blank tubule to blank Na+
distal, reabsorb
291
marine reptiles and birds drink blank and excrete blank urine
seawater, isotonic
292
some marine reptiles and birds eliminate excess salt through blank glands through their nose
salt
293
Three levels of defenses of vertebrates
integumentary, nonspecific immune system, specific immune system
294
defense of vertebrates that includes skin and mucous membranes provide first line of defense
integumentary
295
defense of vertebrate that acts very rapidly after onset of infection
nonspecific immune system
296
vertebrate line of defense that recognizes germs and destroys them
specific immune system
297
largest body organ
skin
298
how many layers of skin
two
299
how many layers of epidermis
5 layers
300
how many cells thick is epidermis
10-30 cells
301
epidermis contains blank which makes skin tough and water resistant
keratin
302
oil and sweat glands give skin a PH of blank to blank
3-5
303
this breaks down bacterial cell walls in the epidermis
lysozyme
304
contains 2 layers of connective tissue and is 15-40 times thicker than epidermis
dermis
305
provides structural support for epidermis, and matrix for blood vessels, muscles and nerve endings
dermis
306
these three tracts are lined by mucous membranes
digestive, respiratory, urogenital
307
this tissue secretes mucus which traps blank
epithelial tissue, microbes
308
this consists of cellular and chemical devices that respond to any microbial infection and is a rapid response
nonspecific immunity
309
three types of blank are the most important nonspecific defense
leukocytes
310
means big eater and is a large/irregularly shaped and kills microbes by phagocytosis and is a leukocyte
macrophages
311
the most abundant type of circulating leukocytes and first appear at site of infection, also eat by phagocytosis
neutrophils
312
type of leukocyte that destroys pathogen-infected and cancer cells by programmed cell death called blank
natural killer lymphocytes, apoptosis
313
blank involves several body systems and is when injured cells dilate and increase permeability
inflammation
314
blank promotes phagocyte accumulation
inflammation
315
redness, warmth, swelling, and pain are all signs of blank
inflammation
316
inflammation is accompanied by an blank manifested by increased temp
acute phase response
317
this promotes activity of phagocytes, while impeding microbial growth
acute phase response
318
The scientific study of immunity began with who in this year
Edward Jenner, 1796
319
Jenner observed that milkmaids had blank rarely got blank
cowpox (mild), smallpox (severe)
320
Jenner blank individuals from cowpox vesicles to protect them from smallpox which started blank
vaccinated, vaccination
321
the four characteristics of the specific or blank immune responses are
specificity, diversity, memory, ability to distinguish self from non self
322
a molecule that provokes a specific immune response
antigens
323
proteins and blank are found on the surface of cells
glycoproteins
324
antigens have specific regions of detection known as blank
epitopes
325
blank direct an immune response against either the antigen or the cell that carries it
lymphocytes
326
when a lymphocyte binds to a specific antigen for the first time, it activates blank
clonal selection
327
two lymphocytes that detect and fight antigens are
B cells and t cells
328
lymphocyte that responds to antigens by secreting blank, or antibodies
B cells, immunoglobulins
329
B cells produce this immunity
humoral (long range)
330
lymphocytes that directly attack cells that carry specific antigens
t cells
331
T cells produce this immunity
cell mediated immunity (close range combat)
332
organs of the immune system consist of these two organs
primary lymphoid, secondary lymphoid
333
organs of the immune system where cells grow and mature
primary lymphoid
334
bone marrow and thymus are blank organs
primary lymphoid organs
335
in these organs, cells move there to expose themselves to antigens
secondary lymphoid organs
336
lymph nodes and spleen are examples of these organs
secondary lymphoid
337
the blank is the site of B cell maturation
bone marrow
338
each B cell has many blank molecules on its surface
lg
339
B cells recognize antigens blank
directly
340
any lymphocyte that binds to self-antigens undergo blank
apoptosis
341
the blank is the site of T cell maturation
thymus
342
each T cell has many blank on its surface
T cell receptors
343
just like B cells, any lymphocytes that bind to self antigens undergo blank
apoptosis
344
the location of secondary lymphoid organs promote the blank of antigens that enter any part of an individual's body
filtering
345
mature b and T cells become activated in the blank
lymph nodes
346
the blank is the site of immune responses to antigens found mainly in the blood
spleen
347
include the tonsils and appendix and is a secondary lymphoid organs
MALT
348
nonspecific immune cell ingests virus or cancer cell and presents the antigen and is because of T cells
cell mediated immunity
349
T cells destroy the cells with blank antigens
foreign
350
type of immunity with B cells where activation results in clonal expansion into blank and blank cells
humoral immunity, plasma cells, memory cells
351
these are also called antibodies
immunoglobulins
352
consists of four chains forming a y shaped molecule
antibody
353
each chain of y shaped molecule has a blank
antigen binding site
354
each Ig can bind blank identical antigens
2
355
how many classes of immunoglobulins
five
356
the first encounter with a foreign antigen is called the
primary immune response
357
only few b or T cells recognize the antigen in this response
primary immune response
358
during this response there is a large clone of memory cells that can recognize the antigen
secondary immune response
359
this response is more effective
secondary immune response
360
the acceptance of self cells is known as blank
immune tolerance
361
these diseases are caused by the failure of immune tolerance
autoimmune diseases
362
autoimmune disease result in activation of autoreactive blank cells and the production of autoantibodies by blank cells
t, b
363
these diseases cause inflammation and organ damage
autoimmune diseases
364
a blank refers to a greatly heightened response to a foreign antigen
allergy
365
the most common type of allergen is known as immediate blank
hypersensitivity
366
blank cells are activated to secrete antibodies on the initial exposure to an allergen
b
367
blank cells release histamine and other inflammatory mediators
mast
368
producing histamines produce blank of allergy
symptoms
369
People may have blank antigens, blank antigens or neither with is called blank, or both called blank in blood
A, B, O, AB
370
antigens are fought and killed by blank
antibodies
371
some pathogens can alter their surface blank to avoid immune system detection
antigens
372
2 surface proteins of influenza virus
antigenic drift, antigenic shift
373
surface protein that point mutations to the genes that express antigen epitopes
antigenic drift
374
surface protein that sudden appearance of a new virus subtype where proteins are completely different due to antigenic drift
antigenic shift
375
this virus mounts a direct attack on T cells
hiv
376
hiv binds to cd4 proteins on t and is blank
endocytosed
377
an individual is considered to have blank when their T cell level has dropped significantly
aids
378
blank results in an increase in opportunistic infections and cancers
immunosuppression
379
all animals must be able to respond to blank stimuli
environmental
380
these detect stimuli like light, heat, touch
sensory receptors
381
photoreceptors, chemoreceptors are examples of blank receptors
sensory
382
blank respond to stimuli
motor
383
muscles and glands are blank
motor effectors
384
the blank system links sensory and motor
nervous
385
three types of neurons
motor, sensory, interneurons
386
carry impulses to CNS and are neurons
sensory
387
neurons that carry impulses from CNS to effectors
motor neurons
388
neurons that provide more complex reflexes and associateive functions
interneurons
389
the majority of neurons are blank
interneurons
390
learning and memory comes from these neurons
interneurons
391
these support the neurons
neuroglia
392
blank are multiple layers of cell membranes wrapped around axons
myelin sheath
393
myelinated axons are formed from blank matter
white
394
dendrites/cell bodies form from blank matter
gray
395
white matter and gray matter make up the blank
CNS
396
myelinated axons are bundled to form nerves in the blank
pns
397
myelinated axons are bundled to form blank
nerves
398
a blank exists across every neuron's plasma membrane
potential difference
399
cytoplasmic side of plasma membrane is blank
negative
400
extracellular fluid side is blank in a plasma membrane
positive
401
cytoplasm is negatively charged because of this
sodium potassium pump
402
sodium potassium pump brings two blank into cell for every three blank pumped out
K+, Na+
403
away from poles and toward neutral in terms of voltage
depolarization
404
depolarization makes the membrane potential more blank
positive
405
blank makes it extremely negative in terms of voltage
hyperpolarization
406
a change in membrane potential that moves down the membrane
action potentials
407
one change in voltage after another along the axon
action potentials
408
depolarization, hyperpolarization, resting are how the blank moves down the axon
action potential
409
action potentials are proliferated by blank channels
voltage-gated ion
410
two voltage gated ion channels
Na+ and K+
411
Na+ channels open blank
first
412
K+ channels open blank
second
413
Na+ causes and influx of Na+ ions causing blank
depolarization
414
K+ channel allows in K+ ions and causes blank
hyperpolarization
415
When depolarization occurs, the change in charge is detected by the blank Na+ channels
adjacent
416
Once the cytoplasm is blank enough, the next channel with blank
positive, open
417
the point where sodium is either allowed in or not of the axon
threshold
418
sodium comes in and causes blank
depolarization
419
potassium goes out and causes blank
hyperpolarization
420
Three phases of action potential
undershoot, resting potential, axon terminal
421
the signal moves down the axon until the axon blank
terminal
422
intercellular junctions between neurons
synapses
423
these cells transmit action potential
presynaptic cell
424
these cells receive the action potential
postsynaptic cells
425
chemical synapses have a blank
synaptic cleft
426
this is the space between two cells
synaptic cleft
427
end of presynaptic axon terminal contains blank
synaptic vesicles
428
these synaptic vesicles are packed with blank
neurotransmitters
429
action potential blanks to the other side of the cleft
diffuses
430
neurotransmitters activate blank channels on the postsynaptic cell
ligand gated ion
431
blank induce opening of the channel in ligand gated ion channels
neurotransmitters
432
blank cause changes in cell membranes permeability
neurotransmitters
433
how are neurotransmitters terminated after they are used?
broken down by enzymes
434
two ways to increase velocity of conduction
axon has a large diameter or axon is myelinated
435
axon having a large diameter is primarily found in blank
invertebrates
436
humans axons are blank which increases velocity of conduction
myelinated
437
spaces between myelin sheet
nodes of Ranvier
438
action potential is produced here
nodes of Ranvier
439
impulse jumps from node to node
saltatory conduction
440
prolonged exposure to a neurotransmitter may cause cells to lose the ability to respond to it. this is called
habituation
441
affects the brain's pleasure pathways and inhibits the reuptake of neurotransmitter and can eventually result in habituation
cocaine
442
when using cocaine, the number of blank to reestablish homeostasis decreases in cells
receptors
443
cocaine use results in a blank neuron activity in normal conditions
decreased
444
the only major phylum without nerves
sponges
445
the simplest nervous system belongs to blank
cnidarians
446
neurons linked to each other in a blank
nerve net
447
a nerve net has no blank neurons
associative
448
a cnidarian is a big blank machine
reflex
449
free-living playhelminthes are the simplest animals with blank activity
associative
450
all other nervous systems are elaborations on the blank model
playhelminth
451
earthworms have a blank that connect to the periphery
cns
452
arthropods have blank centers in the fron and branching blank chords
coordination, nerve
453
cephalopods have several giant blank that connect to a blank brain
giant, large
454
a vertebrate brain is an enlargement of the blank portion of the nerve cord
anterior
455
three basic division of the simplest vertebrate brain
hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain
456
the dominant feature of the brain in vertebrattes
forebrain
457
the increase in brain size in blank reflects the great enlargement of the blank
mammals, cerebrum
458
cerebrum has right and left blank which are connected by the blank
cerebral hemispheres, corpus callosum
459
four lobes of hemispheres of brain
frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital
460
integrates visual, auditory, and somatosensory informatino
thalamus
461
integrates visceral activites, controls the pituitary gland and is part of the blank system
hypothalamus, limbic
462
system responsible for emotional responses
limbic system
463
a cable of neurons extending from the brain down through the backbone
spinal cord
464
spinal cord is enclosed and protected by the vertebral column and the
meninges
465
serves as the body's information highway
spinal cord
466
spinal cord also functions in blank
reflexes
467
the knee jerk reflex is blank which means no interneuron
monosynaptic
468
no interneuron
monosynaptic
469
most reflexes in vertebrates involve a single blank
interneuron
470
the blank nervous system consists of nerves and ganglia
pns
471
are bundles of axons bound by connective tissue
nerves
472
are aggregates of neuron cell bodies
ganglia
473
blank motor neurons stimulate the skeletal muscles to contract
somatic
474
somatic nervous system involves only one blank neuron
motor
475
nervous system with subconscious control
autonomic
476
motor pathway has blank neurons in autonomic nervous system
two
477
the first neuron exits the cns and synapses at autonomic blank
ganglia
478
the second neuron exits the ganglion and regulates blank in motor pathway of ans
effectors
479
two division of autonomic nervous system
sympathetic, parasympathetic
480
fight or flight, reduce digestion, increase alertness, increase respiration
sympathetic
481
division of ans with slow heart rate/breathing, increase digestive functions and relaxed
parasympathetic division
482
two times of stimuli that sensory receptors sense
exteroceptors and interoceptors
483
three classes of receptors
mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors, energy detecting receptors
484
receptors stimulated by mechanical forces like pressure
mechanoreceptors
485
receptors that detect chemicals or chemical changes
chemoreceptors
486
four steps in process of sensory info being percieved
stimulation, transduction, transmission, interpretation
487
receptor potential in sensory cell is created in this step
transduction
488
action potential in sensory neuron in this step
transmission
489
sensory cells respond to stimuli via blank channels
stimulus gated ion
490
depolarization of the receptor cell occurs which is referred to as blank in stimulus gated ion channels
receptor potential
491
only responds to a specific kind of stimulus
stimulus gated ion channels
492
these are mechanoreceptors that transmit impulses based on cell damage
nociceptors
493
pain is the interpretation of blank
nociceptors
494
free nerve endings are located throughout the blank
body
495
there are blank nerve endings where damage is most likely to occur
free
496
mechanoreceptors that are naked dendritic endings of sensory neurons and are sensitive to changes in temperature
thermoreceptors
497
thermoreceptors contain blank channels that are responsive to hot and cold
ion
498
blank receptors are located higher in the skin and are much more numerous than blank receptors
cold, warm
499
several types of mechanoreceptors detect blank
touch
500
how many components of sense of touch
six
501
mechanoreceptors that monitor muscle length and tension
proprioceptors
502
two things that provide information about the relative position or movement of animal's body parts
muscle spindels, golgi tendon organs
503
mechanoreceptors that monitor blood pressure
baroreceptors
504
baroreceptors are a branched network of afferent neurons in the blank and blank
carotid sinus, aortic arch
505
these mechanoreceptors detect tension or stretch in wallls of blood vessels
baroreceptors
506
when blood pressure decreases, the frequency of impulse blanks in baroreceptros
decreases
507
specialized cells with cytoplasmic extensions are called blank in hair cells
stereocilia
508
when stereocilia bend they send a blank to a sensory neuron
action potential
509
stereocilia detect these three senses
water current, hearing, balance
510
lateral line system of a fish has blank cells in a gelatinous blank
hair, cupula
511
bending of stereocilia detects blank in fish
currents
512
the detection of vibrations
hearing
513
blank receptors provide better directional information than blank receptors
auditory, chemo
514
three chambers filled with fluid wrapped in a coil
cochlea
515
has a basilar membrane with hair cells in the cochlea
organ of corti
516
vibrations of the basilar membrane's hair cells press the stereocilia against the blank
tectorial membrane
517
sends nerve impulses to the brain where they are interpreted as sound
cochlea
518
bats, shrews, whales, dolphins have the ability to perceive presence and distance of objects by sound
echolocation
519
the gravity receptors consist of two blank in the membranous blank in vertebrates
chambers, labyrinth
520
within the blank and blank are hair cells
utricle, saccule
521
utricle and saccule are embedded in a calcium rich blank
otolith membrane
522
head movement causes the otolithic membrane to move and blank to bend
stereocilia
523
these detect angular acceleration in any direction
semicircular canals
524
swollen chambers of semicircular canals
ampullae
525
hair cell stereocilia with a gelatinous blank protrude into blank
cupula, semicircular canals
526
blank moves fluid in semicircular canals
acceleration
527
these can bind to particular chemicals in extracellular fluid
chemoreceptors
528
membrane of sensory neuron becomes blank and produces action potentials
depolarized
529
senses that are from chemoreceptors, three
taste, smell, blood composition
530
five receptor types of taste
sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami
531
collections of chemosensitive cells associated with afferent neurons
taste buds
532
flies have taste chemoreceptors on their blank
feet
533
blank involves neurons located in the upper portion of the nasal passages
smell
534
humans have over blank smell receptors
50
535
humans can discern blank different smells
thousands
536
these are found in the aortic and carotid bodies and are senstive primarily to pH of plasma
peripheral chemoreceptors
537
these are found in the medulla oblongata of the brain and are sensitive to the pH of blank fluid
central chemoreceptors, cerebrospinal
538
vision begins with the capture of light energy by blank
photoreceptors
539
many invertebrates have photoreceptors in a blank like flatworms
eyespot
540
flatworms can perceive blank but cannot make a blank
direction of light, visual image
541
four phyla have evolved well developed image forming eyes and they are
annelids, mollusks, arthropods, chordates
542
vision is an example of blank evolution because vision is similar in structure but evolved independently
convergent
543
rods have blank which is a broad ranging pigment that detects values
rhodopsin
544
cones have blank
photopsins
545
the more blank you have the more color you see
cones
546
carnivores are blank
dichromats
547
humans are blank
trichromats
548
birds are blank and can see ultraviolet
tetrachromats
549
three layers of cells in retina from external to internal layer
photoreceptors, bipolar cells, ganglion cells
550
photoreceptors stimulate blank cells which stimulate blank cells
bipolar, ganglion
551
action potentials from retina goes to the blank
thalamus
552
each blank of cerebrum receives input from both eyes
hemisphere
553
ability to perceive 3d images
binocular vision
554
prey animals have eyes on side of blank
head
555
predators have eyes on the side of blank
face
556
snakes can see blank
infrared
557
blank organs allow snakes to see infrared
pit
558
elasmobranchs (sharks rays, skates) have blank
electroreceptors
559
this can sense electrical currents generated by the muscle contractions of their prey
ampullae of lorenzini
560
these navigate along the magnetic field lines of the earth, eels, sharks, bees, birds
magnetoception
561
don't know how blank works
magnetoception
562
there is blank in the periderm
cork
563
this contributes to lateral growth of trees
vascular cambium
564
a blank is established during embryo genesis
root shoot axis
565
pfr may increase plant height because far red light is
reflecting off other plants
566
pulvini cells do not respond to blank
auxin
567
two modified stems
aerial, tubers
568
have no jaws fish
cyclostomata
569
this triggers secretion of HCL from the gastric glands
gastrin
570
this is released into the blood to store acquired nutritents from food
glucagon
