Biology Flashcards
1
Q
What makes primary structure of proteins?
A
peptide bonds
2
Q
What holds secondary structure of proteins?
A
folded chains (beta sheets and alpha helix) made of hydrogen bonds
3
Q
What holds tertiary structure of proteins?
A
3D folded, hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, dipole, dispersion, and disulfide
4
Q
What holds quarternary structure of proteins?
A
multiple peptide subunits held by disulfide bonds
5
Q
Which amino acids are important in alpha helix?
A
Proline and glycine- they destabilize alpha helix
6
Q
Targets of phosphorylation
A
serine, threonine, tyrosine (Have OH nucleophile)
7
Q
Which amino acids can mimic phosphate groups
A
asparatic and glutamic acid (bulky, negative)
8
Q
What is a salt bridge?
types of bonds?
A
base and acid interact with hydrogen bonds and electrostatic interactions
9
Q
Apoprotein vs. haloprotein
A
apoprotein is without prosthetic group, haloprotein has prosthetic
10
Q
Isoelectric effect
A
pH when net charge on protein is zero, high pKa= high pH
11
Q
Isoelectric focusing
A
separates protein based on difference in charge. They migrate until pH=pI (until neutral), uses a pH gradient, (-) cathode, and (+) anode
12
Q
How does SDS work
A
denatures and gives uniform charge to seperate proteins by mass
13
Q
How does Native Page work
A
Separates proteins based on size and charge … retains structure (no denaturing)
14
Q
How is BME used in SDS page?
A
Breaks down disulfide bonds, is a reducing agent
15
Q
Myosin
A
thick filament, muscle contraction. Uses ATP to crawl along actin
16
Q
Kinesin
A
Aids movement of chromosomes and vesicles - intracellular transport
17
Q
Dynein
A
movement of cilia and flagella in microtubules - intracellular transport and motility
18
Q
What types of cells are pluripotent vs. multipotent
A
embryonic is pleuripotent, adult is multipotent
19
Q
What crosses membrane?
A
Small, non-polar molecules
20
Q
What makes a phospholipid
A
phosphate head, glycerol backbone, and fatty acid tail
21
Q
What is hydrostatic pressure
A
pressure of liquid on container, reflects volume in a space
22
Q
What is osmotic pressure?
A
Pressure required to prevent movement across semi-permeable membrane. Shows protein content of blood
23
Q
Symport
A
couple energy to move in same direction (one down gradient, other against)
24
Q
Secondary active transport
A
indirectly uses energy to move
25
Intercalated discs
In cardiac muscle, permits passage of ions between cells- allows rapid spread of action potential during contractions
26
Desosomes
connections between cells that ions/water can flow between. In the skin or intestine
27
Gap junctions
Tunnels between cells, allows ions/water to flow. Common in cells that use electrical coupling (cardiac, neurons)
28
Enzyme linked receptor
receptor tyrosine kinase, triggered by signals from the enviornment
29
Receptor tyrosine kinase
phosphorylates, acts as a dimer that crosslinks when ligand binds. Cross link activates other side. Regulates signal transduction and gene transcription
30
Smooth ER
lipid production, detoxifies, metabolizes carbs
31
Rough ER
protein production; exports out of cell and some modification
32
Golgi Apparatus
sorts, packages, protein modification, exports
33
Peroxisome
lipid destruction, contains oxidative enzymes, isolate peroxide and break it down
34
Lysosome
protein destruction, acidic enviornment for enzymes (protects cells- won't work in cytoplasm)
35
Eukaryote vs. prokaryote
eukaroyotes compartmentalize, have membrane bound organelles, mitosis, nucleus. Prokaryotes divide by binary fission
36
Nucleolus
has DNA that makes rRNA. Ribosomes move through pore to cytoplasm
37
Mitochondira
make ATP, outer membrane with lipid bilayer and inner membrane with cristae... inter membrane is between outer and inner
38
Reactions and locations of cellular respiration
glycolysis: 6C to 2 3C pyruvate (cytoplasm), PDH complex (pyruavte to acetyl-CoA in matrix), Krebs uses acetyl coA to make NADH, FADH2 in matrix, and ETC which uses electron carrier to make ATP in the inner membrane
39
Microtubules
mitotic spindle, cilia, and flagella. has 9+2 arrangement
40
Intermediate filaments
permanent, has many proteins. Aids structural support, and resists stress/ compression
41
Microfilaments
in cytoplasm, made of actin. Aids movement and cell division. Can lengthen and shorten to move cell
42
4 parts of cell theory
cell is the basic unit, cells come from pre-existing cells, all living things are composed of cells, cells have DNA
43
Protists
eukaryote, unicellular, have nucleus and exist in moist enviornment, Not plant/fungus/animal
44
Archaea
prokaryotes, extreme enviornments (heat, salt, gas) -different cell wall
45
Bacteria
capsule, cell wall, membrane, flagella, nucleoid, pilli. NO NUCLEUS, circular dsDNA, some have plasmid
46
gram positive bacteria
purple, has membrane and thick peptidoglycan, capsule
47
gram negative bacteria
red, has inner membrane, outer membrane, thin peptidoglycan, lipopolysaccharide, capsule- More layers so purple washed off due to thin peptidoglycan and high fatty acid
48
Bacilli
Rod
49
Viruses
capsid (protein coat), and either ssDNA or RNA - no organelles, small, need host
50
bacteriorphage
viruses that infect bacteria, inject phage and use receptors or fuse with membrane
51
lytic
take over cells machinery to make copies, form functional viruses and then lyse cell to release- FAST but kills host
52
lysogenic
sneaks in, combine with hosts genetic information. Repressed, then replicates with bacteria. Provirus
53
retrovirus
enveloped, use reverse trancriptase to converse RNA to DNA to integrate into host genome
54
viroid
ss Circular RNA, infects plants. Self cleaves to reproduce
55
prions
infectious proteins, no genetic material- usually beta sheet
56
Mitosis checkpoints
G1/S and G2/M
57
G1 of mitosis
makes organelles, proteins, cyclines
58
G2 of mitosis
makes microtubules
59
Zona pellucida
outside of egg cell
60
What derives from endoderm
GI, lungs, liver, pancreas, stomach, SI, LI
61
What derives from mesoderm
skin, muscles, bone, kidney, bladder, ovaries
62
What derives from ectoderm
outer skin, sweat glands, hair, NS
63
stem cells
self renew, can differentiate into specialized cells if embryonic, somatic SC are used for repair
64
pluripotent stem cells
can differentiate into several types of cells
65
epithelial stem cells
can only form epithelial cells (utipotent)
66
hematopoietic stem cells
gives rise to many types of cell but in one family (multipotent)
67
Asymmetric replication of stem cells
form mother cell (identical) and daughter cell which is differentiated and becomes more specialized
68
Symmetric replication of stem cells
form two identical cells
69
induced pluripotent stem cells
revert back into pluripotent and can replace damage
70
Paracrine signalling
nearby (neurotransmitter, histamine)
71
Endocrine signalling
signal to large group using blood
72
Autocrine signalling
signal to site on the same cell
73
Juxtacrine signalling
signals nearbycells that are in direct contact
74
Hayflick limit
how many times a cell can divide before senescence (about 60)
75
Capases role in apoptosis
activates by cytochrome C, break down proteins after aspartate in apoptosis
76
gray matter
neurons somas, deep in spine, outer of brain
77
white matter
myelinated axons, deep in brain, outer of spine
78
cerebellum
coordinates movement, position, motor plan
79
brain stem
midbrain, pons, medulla, reticular formation - neurons, autonomic, control, cognition, emotion
80
Corpus callosum
travel between hemispheres
81
Basal ganglia
motor function, cognition, emotion
82
Thalamus
sensory, higher brain function
83
hypothalamus
controls pituatary gland, endocrine, higher functioning, makes ADH and oxytocin
84
Cerebral Cortex
gyri, sulci, fissures, frontal, parietal, temporal ... has sensory, motor, and association areas
85
Broca vs. Wernicke
Broca is speech production, Wernickes is word meaning
86
CT scan
X ray to image brain
87
MRI
radio waves and magnetic field causes atoms to align and signal
88
EEG
electro activity of brain via electrodes- shows engagement
89
MEG
electrical currents in the brain
90
fMRI
functional MRI, shows active structures, firing means more oxygenated
91
PET scan
CAT + MRI, inject glucose, and shows active areas
92
Autonomic NS
unconcious, efferent neurons control smooth, cardiac, muscle, and gland cells
93
Dendrites
how information comes in, then goes to axon as graded potential
94
Afferent neurons
sensory, periphery to CNS
95
Efferent neurons
motor or autonomic, away from CNS to periphery
96
Astrocytes
glial cells of CNS, make scars, homeostasis, BBB, clean synapse
97
microglia
glial cells of CNS, secrete cytotoxic cells (phagocytosis) and antigen presentation
98
ependymal cells
glial cells of CNS, barrier between cerebrospinal and interstitial fluid. Helps move fluid
99
Oligodendrocytes
glial cells of CNS, create myelin sheath and aid exchange between cells
100
Schwann cells
glial cells of PNS from neural crest, support nerve cells and create myelin- only one axon
101
Depolarization
excitatory, move towards threshold
102
hyperpolarization
increases charge separation, more negative
103
What creates resting potential
Na/K pump, leak channels, ions. Ions are attracted to + outside or - inside. chemical forces move towards lower concentration
104
Na K pump
2 K in, 3 Na out
105
Saltatory conduction
jumping from node to node, no smooth conduction
106
What conducts action potential fastest
larger diameters (less resistance), more myelin (reduced capacitance- less ions to change potential)
107
methods to remove neurotransmitters
diffusion, degrade via enzymes, reuptake channels, astrocytes (pump out and break down)
108
How sarcolemma works with action potential
Action potential depolarizes sarcolemma, casuses SR to release Ca and bind troponin to make myosin move
109
Smooth muscle
hollow organs, blood vessels, involuntary, slow, 1 nuclei
110
Cardiac muscle
involuntary, branched, 1-2 nuclei, striated
111
Skeletal muscle
voluntary, fast, straight, many nuclei, striated
112
Type 1 muscle fibers
more mitochonria, red, slow contraction and conduction, aerobic, longer contraction, stronger, store triglycerides
113
Type 2 muscle fibers
white, fast contraction and conduction, anaerobic, short contraction, easily fatigued, ATP and creatine
114
Autonomic NS hormones
sympathetic (epi, norepi) and parasympathetic (ach)
115
Types of bone marrow
red bone barrow -hematopoeisis, yellow bone marrow- fat storage
116
trabecula
spongy bone
117
lacunae
space for bone cells, exchange nutrients
118
osteons
compact bone, cocentric layers of lamellae
119
osteoblasts
synthesis of collagen, proteins, form osteocytes and bone- grow and heal (less ca/ phosphate in blood)
120
osteoclasts
in lacunae, break down, works with phosphatase (MORE CA/PHOSPHATE IN BLOOD)
121
What maintains bone
PTH, calcitrol (D) increase Ca/P in blood and decrease in bone, and calcitonin decreases Ca/P in blood
122
Cartilage
form condrocytes, collagen, and elastin. Not innervated
123
Hyaline
Cartilage that reduces friction and absorbs shock
124
elastic Cartilage
shape, support
125
Fibrous cartilage
joints, rigidity, absorb shock
126
Tendons
muscle to bone
127
ligaments
bone to bone
128
pituatary gland
master gland, direct stimulation to other glands
129
thyroid
regulated by pituatary, regulates metabolism through T3 and T4
130
Parathyroid
regulates blood calcium and PTH
131
adrenal medulla
inner, makes catecholamines (epi/nor epi) - adrenaline
132
adrenal cortex
outer, makes steroids (cortisol and aldosterone which regulate blood volume)
133
Anterior pituitary
communicates with hypothalamus using hypophyseal portal
134
Hormones secreted by hypothalamus that signal pituatary
GnRH, CRH, TRH, GHRH, prolactin IF
135
What does GnRH release cause
release of FSH and LH from AP, which moves to gonads
136
What does prolactin IF do
Release from hypothalamus stimulates no prolactin
137
tropic hormones
FLAT- FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH- these stimulate glands
138
Direct hormones
PEG- prolactin, endorphins, GH
139
Posterior pituitary
stimulates using nerves to cause release of hormones that are made in hypothalmus - ADH and oxytocin
140
Protein hormones
receptors are in or on cell surface, secondary messengers
141
Steroid hormones
from lipids, receptors in cell. Primary messengers
142
tyrosine derivatives
thyroid, catecholamines
143
insulin
increase glucose storage, comes from Beta cells
144
glycolysis
irreversible, glucose to ATP
145
glycogenesis
formation of glycogen, reversible
146
lipogenesis
making lipids/ fatty acids. Irreversible, long term storage
147
glucagon
release glucose from storage, from alpha cells
148
gluconeogenesis
use amino acids to make glucose, reversible
149
glucogenolysis
break down glycogen, reversible
150
Ketogenesis
use fatty acids to make ketone bodies- starvation
151
islet of langergans
in pancreas. Alpha and beta cells make glucagon and insulin. Activated by calcium receptors
152
type 1 diabetes
pancreas does not produce insulin properly, glucose cannot enter cell
153
type 2 diabetes
insulin receptors do not work, glucose cannot enter cell
154
leptin
satiety hormone from hypothalamus, stimulated by insulin release
155
IVC
blood into heart from the body
156
Aorta
pumps blood out of the heart to body
157
3 layers of heart
endocardium, myocardium (contracts), pericardium
158
Pathway of blood
SVC/IVC to RA to RV to lungs and pulmonary system to LA to LV to aortic valve and aorta to body then back to SVC
159
Atrioventricular valves
tethered to walls, - triscupid (Between RA and RV), and mitral (between LA and LV)
160
What affects blood flow
length, radius, resistance
161
chordae tendonae
keep the valve from flipping backwards, keeps blood moving in one direction- works with papillary muscles
162
Interventricular septum
between ventricles, issues at membranous cause VSD
163
How deos the heart get blood and oxygen
coronary vessels
164
How does the lungs get oxygenated blood
bronchial vessles
165
Do RBC use oxygenated blood?
No, they have no mitochondira so they do not use oxygen
166
Systole
force of blood exiting the heart and going into the arteries during contraction
167
Diastolic
heart is relaxed, filling with blood
168
layers of blood vessel
tunica intima (basement membrane of endothelial cells), media (smooth muscle), and externa (collagen)
169
pulmonary artery vs. veins
pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood to lungs, pulmonary veins carries oxygenated blood to LA from lungs
170
artery
blood away from heart
171
vein
blood towards the heart
172
pulmonary artery
deoxygenated blood to lungs
173
pulmonary vein
oxygenated blood from lungs to heart
174
What makes up plasma
water, proteins (albumin, antibody, fibrinogen), hormones, electrolytes, nutrients
175
What makes up blood
Plasma, WBC, platelets, RBC, HGB
176
hematocrit
volume of RBC/ total volume
177
aveolus
where oxygen interfaces with blood vessels
178
What aids blood clots
collagen, platelets, fibrin, and thrombin. Tissue factors tell when to clot
179
antithrombin
plasmin degrades clot
180
thrombin
facilitates fibrinogen into fibrin for blood clots
181
What stimulates RBC production
erythropoeitin, released by kidney when oxygen is low
182
Bohr effect
CO2 and hydrogen affects the affinity of HGB for oxygen
183
Haldane effect
O2 affects the affinity of HGB for CO2 and hydrogen
184
Universal donor vs. acceptor
donor is O, acceptor is AB
185
Role of spleen
recognizes old RBC and degrades them using monocytes
186
What are pluripotent hematopoietic cells
Can make any type of blood cell (myeloid or lymphoid)
187
Myeloid
forms RBC, mega karyocytes, monocytes, neurtophils, basophils, eosinophils, and mast cells
188
Mega karyocytes
make platelets
189
monocytes
form macrophage
190
mast cells
function in allergic reactions, make histamine
191
lymphoid cells
form lymphocytes (B and T cells) and NK cells
192
Which muscles contract during inhalation
external intercostal, and diaphragm - which flattens for expansion
193
Elastin
surrounds alveoli to allow for expansion when breathing
194
What receptors are used in the respiratory center
central chemoreceptors (CO2/pH), peripheral chemoreceptors (O2, CO2, pH), mechanoreceptors (pressure)
195
respiratory center
uses motor nerves to control diaphragm, intercostal muscles, abdominal, and accessory muscles
196
MHC-2
senses infections, activate helper T cells by presenting antigens at surface of cell (uses peices that were phagocytized)
197
phagocytes
neurophils (fast), macrophage, dendritic cells
198
Dendritic cells
antigen presenting cells, have MHC-2
199
Cells of specific immunity
B and T cells
200
B lymphocytes
Hummoral response, make antibodies and present on surface to mark for destruction. Bind specific antigens to be activated
201
How are self responding immune responses prevented
B cells removes self responding antibodies from the surface so that they only respond to foreign. Kill cells that self react
202
What do B lymphocytes become
memory or effector cells
203
T lymphocytes
Cell mediated, helper or cytotoxic T cells
204
Helper T cells
bind certain antigen presenting cells, (from MHC-2) activates, and proliferates to become effector or memory T cells
205
Effector helper T cells
release cytokines and gets cell ready for immune response. Activates B cells.
206
Cytotoxic T cells
kills other cells that are infiltrated. MHC 1, differentiates into memory and effector
207
MHC-1
on all nucleated cells in the body, MHC presents problems in cells to cytotoxic to kill
208
CD4+
binds MHC-1, mostly helper T
209
CD8+
binds MHC-2, cytotoxic
210
Clonal selection
preparing B and T cells to fight. Cells wait in lymph nodes form something to react. Select out for whats needed for response and clone
211
Non specific immune response
phagocytes, WBC, leukocytes, inflammatory, barriers
212
small intestine
hydrolysis and absorption
213
large intestine
absorption (water, ions, vitamins)
214
lingual lipase
breaks down triglycerides in mouth into free fatty acids
215
alpha amylase
breaks down carbs to smaller carbs
216
Cells of stomach
parietal cells, cheif cells, mucous cells
217
Parietal cells
releases HCl
218
cheif cells
secrete pepsinogen to degrade proteins
219
mucous cells
secrete mucous to coat stomahc
220
duodenum
recieves chyme, digests. has villi and bile from the liver/GB to emusify fat
221
pancreas enzymes
trypsinogen, chymotrypsin, amylase, lipase, enteropeptidase
222
enteropeptidase
makes active forms of enzymes (trypsin, chymotrypsin)
223
brush boarder enzymes
peptidase, lactase, nucleosides
224
nucleoside
sugar and base - no phosphate
225
Jejunum
most absorption, bile to GI tract
226
ileum
absorption, bile/fat absorbed and moves to liver to repeat - connects to cecum
227
liver
metabolism, storage of nutrients (carbs, fats), moves proteins to blood, detoxifies, makes bile
228
How does the liver get products from the blood?
portal vein, hepatic artery, hepatic vein, common hepatic duct, hepatic triad
229
portal vein
gives liver nutrient rich blood
230
hepatic artery
gives liver oxygen rich blood
231
hepatic vein
nutrient and oxygen poor blood leaves liver and goes to heart
232
common hepatic duct
allows bile to leave the liver and move to cystic duct to gallbladder
233
hepatic triad
portal bein, hepatic artery, common hepatic duct
234
bile
pigments, salts- help emulsify fat to micelles. Stored in Gallbladder
235
CCK
causes gallbladder to contract and release bile. uses common bile duct to move to small intestine.
236
Pancreas
releases enzymes to duodenum, amylase and lipase, proteolytic enzymes, hormones
237
How is the stomach neutralized
pancreas releases Bicarb to neutralize the HCl
238
Proleolytic enzymes
trypsinogen (activated by enteropeptidase), and chymotrypsin (Activated by trypsin)
239
Delta islet cells
in pancreas, release somatostatin- stops active hormones
240
large intestine structure
cecum to ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colon. Asb
241
Large intestine sphincters
external is skeletal, internal is smooth muscle
242
What controls GI
Enteric NS, hormones (gastrin), secretin
243
Gastrin
released from stomach and stimulates digestive juices (HCl, pepsinogen) to release. Decreases when pH is low.
244
Secretin
released when acidic chyme moves to duodenum. Stimulates pancreas to release bicarb, and fat in chyme causes CCK from SI
245
CCK in the stomach
moves to pancreas to release lipase. And contraction/ bile release and slowing down stomach motility
246
Epidermis layers
epitheleal tissue. Has basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum, and corneum.
247
Basale
Deepest layer of skin, has keratinocytes, melanocytes, rapid division
248
Spinosum
desosomes, langerhans (immune)
249
Granulosum
granules, and lamellar body (makes lipids)
250
lucidum
dead keratinocytes, clear
251
Corneum
top, lipid (water proof), dead
252
Dermis
Connective tissue. Has collagen and actin. Papillary and reticular layers
253
Papillary dermis
top, thin, loose. Has blood vessels and nerve endings
254
reticular dermis
deeper, thicker, denser. Glands, follicles, arrector pilli muscle (goose bumps) COLLAGEN
255
hypodermis
bottom, subcutaneous fat (absorbs shock, insulation)
256
Sweat
sebum, apex secretion (protein, lipids, steroids), watery
257
meissners receptor
mechanoreceptor, light touch, in papillary, non hairy
258
pacinian receptor
layered, deep touch, hypodermis
259
Merkels
in between stratum and papillary, sustained light touch
260
Ruffini receptor
sustained touch, needs collagen to work- in reticular dermis
261
Hair receptor
triggered by deflected hair. Light touch, reticular dermis
262
Nociceptor
pain
263
TrpV1 receptor
temperature and pain
264
epididymis
sperm development (gain mobility) then move to vas deferens and urethra
265
seminal vesicles
contributes fluid to semen
266
semen
alkaline, semen and seminal fluid, sugar for ATP
267
seminiferous tubules
where sperm is made and leaves in testes
268
sertoli cells
spem develop
269
stages of sperm
spermatogonium, primary spermatocyte, seconday spermatocyte, spermatoza, sperm
270
testosterone
binds genes to influence function, made in leydig cells. Convert some to estrogen, other to DHT. regulated by DHT and keeps sperm production going
271
oogenesis
oogonia divide to make primary oocyte
272
Secondary oocyte
made at puberty - in meiosis, one takes cytoplasm, other is polar body
273
Fertilization
sperm fuses with egg in meiosis 2, oocyte makes another polar body and becomes Ovuum, secondary is mestruated out
274
Follicles
where primary egg develops, has granulosa cells to secrete hormone. Dominant follice is ovulated
275
primary follucles
Pellucida separates granulosa and eggs. gap junctions allow granulosa to nourish egg.
276
Corpus luteum
FSH- aids follicle maturation
277
Estrogen and progesterone
gets follicles ready for implantation
278
Menopause
loose ability to respond to LH/FSH
279
Umbilical artery vs. vein
umbilical artery is away from heart, vein is towards
280
Trophoblasts
aids diffusion of nutrients between mom and fetus blood cells
281
Estrogen
by ovaries, transported via blood and binds to change expression.
282
What causes estrogen release
FSH causes ovaries to develop and granulosa releases estrogen
283
Labor
progesterone drops so muscles relax. More sensitive to other hormones allows for contraction. Oxytocin from PP causes contraction
284
Lactation
via lactiferous ducts, PIF is turned off in hypothalamus so that AP can release prolactin.
285
Suckling
hypothalamus stimulates release of oxytocin. More sucking causes more oxytocin release and more milk release
286
lyase
breaks bond without using water
287
What breaks down enzyme complex
Heat affects non covalent interactions (such as active site), or alter pH
288
founder effect
move to new population, less variation and more drift
289
Bottleneck effect
most of population is killed by stress
290
Coevolution
two species evolve alongside eachother and exert pressures on eachother
291
Gene flow
alterations in composition of gene pool due to migration
292
genetic drift
changes in frequency of gene pool due to chance
293
catabolism vs. anabolism
catabolism is breaking down, anabolism is forming
294
albumin
allows fatty acids to travel in the blood stream
295
hormone sensitive lipase
breaks down fat when levels of glucagon or insulin change
296
immunohistochemistry
uses antibodies to check for tissue markers - identify antigens using antibody binding
297
Cellular respiration
Glycolysis (anaerobic), Krebs (aerobic), ETC
298
when to use gluconeogenesis
when fasting- need to pump glucose into blood
299
functions of NADPH
cholesterol and fatty acidy synthesis, protect from ROS
300
Where does translation occur
cytoplasm
301
Deoxy ribose
no 2' oxygen
302
Topoisomerase
unwinds DNA and prevents supercoiling
303
Helicase
unwinds and breaks hydrogen bonds
304
Eukaryotic vs. prokaryotic ribosomal subunits
Euk have 60 and 40s, 80s total. Pro have 50s and 30s, 70s total
305
DNA polymerase 1
removes primer at the end of replication, exonuclease
306
DNA polymerase 3
proofreads, exonuclease
307
Mismatch repair
recognize, cut, econuclease removes nucleotide, DNA pol inserts the correct nucleotide and the ligase seals
308
Nucleotide excision repair
endonuclease removes dimers/ structural errors (Does not need to be at the end), polymerase brings in new nucleotide, ligase seals
309
How do bacteria distinguish parent strand
methylated is correct strand (parent)
310
activator
enhance reaction between promoter and RNA polymerase
311
Repressor
binds operator, inducer can cause repressor to detach from operator
312
Silencer
repressor binds, RNA polymerase cannot bind promoter
313
Splicesome
cleaves introns so that they stay in the nucleus using a hair pin
314
snRPS
splicesome for introns in the mRNA, process pre RNA in the nucleus, regulates transcription factors and telomeres
315
non conservative mutation
loss of function (sickle cell, glu to val)
316
Missense mutation
changes amino acid
317
Nonsense mutation
premature stop codon
318
Conservative mutation
same type of amino acid
319
silent mutation
different codon that codes for the same amino acid
320
penetrance
fraction with a genotype that express a phenotype
321
constant vs. variable expressivity
constant is expressed in the same way each time, variable has different phenotypes with same genotype
322
How do antibiotics work
they reduce enzymes of bacteria and increase activation energy of bacteria
323
Mg cofactor with DNA polymerase
works with DNA polymerase to bind negative DNA, bind at asparatate. Any changes in pH affect Mgs ability to bind (aspartate is negative at neutral pH)
324
Synapsis
pairing of homologous chromosomes
325
Endosymbiotic theory
mitochondria and chloroplasts were independent and joined together to become eukaryotic cell. Both help eachother
326
Why are mitochrondrial disorders passed through the mother?
mitochondria replicated independent from the rest of the cell, and are passed from the mothers egg
327
retroviruses
enveloped SS RNA with 3 proteins, use reverse transcriptase and exit nucleus like normal RNA to form proteins
328
integrase
works with reverse transcriptase to remove 3' ends to form sticky ends and integrate DNA to host for cirus
329
Total lung capacity
max volume when one inhales completely
330
Residual volume
minimum volume of air left in the lungs after one exhales completely
331
Vital capacity
difference between minimum and max volume of air (TLC-RV)
332
Tidal volume
amount of air inhaled or exhaled in a normal breathe
333
Expiratory reserve volume
Amount of air the can be forcibly exhaled after a normal breathe
334
Inspriratory reserve volume
Amount of air the can be forcibly inhaled after a normal breathe
335
What regulates respiratory?
Medulla. Chemoreceptors respond to blood CO2 and O2 and cerebrum (voluntary)
336
Functions of lymphatic system
Removes interstitial fluid from tissues into lymph, absorbs and transports fats from the intestine, helps mature lymphocytes, brings molecules that leak into the interstitial system back into the blood
337
Vasa recta
in kidney, gives oxygen
338
Kidney
Filters blood and makes urine, has 2 capillary beds: vasa recta, peritubular capillaries
339
Peritubular capillaries
collect nutrients for the kidneys to filter
340
Renal artery
helps kidney take in blood
341
Kidney filtration
filters waste and saves whats important - at glomerulus
342
Kidney collection
Collect and put out urine
343
Kidney homeostasis
pH, bp, osmolarity, waste
344
Nephron
Filtration, collection. Has outer (renal cortex) and inner (renal medulla)
345
Renal calyx
collects urine in kidney, collects into renal pelvis, and exits through ureter to bladder
346
Renal hila
two vessels leave kidney (artery, vein, ureter)
347
Bowmans capsule
collects fluid from the glomerulus that is filtered from the blood.
348
Bowmans space
where amino acids, glucose, ions leak from glomerulus to bowmans capsule. Has endothelial cells, podocytes, epitheleal cells
349
Proximal convuluted tubule
reabsorbs amino acids, ions, glucose, and water from the glomerulus
350
descending LOH
reabsorbs water
351
Ascending LOH
reabsorbs ions
352
How does the kidney use counter current multiplication
The medulla actively absorbs - is salty. Causes the descending LOH to passively absorb water
353
Distal convulted tubulue
loops back from LOH to glomerulus, reabsorbs ions and nutrients
354
Why can the LOH reabsorb urea
Absorbed by medulla to help drive water reabsorbtion by altering osmolarity
355
Collecting duct
collects anything leftover in nephron, reabsorbs water and urine
356
How does reabsorbed product reenter blood in kidneys
efferent arterioles collects and returns the reabsorbed nutrients to the blood and body, uses renal vein
357
What lines the bladder
transitional epitheleal, allows for expansion
358
Pathway of urine
renal calyces to renal pelvis to ureter to bladder to urethra
359
Internal urethral sphincter
smooth muscle (involuntary) - makes sure bladder does not leak
360
External urethral sphincter
voluntary control to urinate
361
What triggers renin release
low BP, sympathetic responses, low salt in DCT via macula densa cells
362
What secretes angiotensinogen
liver cells
363
Angiotensinogen
activated by renin into angiotensin 1
364
angiotensin 2
angiotensin 1 forms angiotensin 2 at endothelieal cells via ACE
365
How does acetylation affect transcription
Acetyl groups weaken lysines on the histones. Causes less attraction to DNA. Making DNA more accessible to increase trx
366
Transcription Initiation complex
RNA polymerase, promoter, TATA binding
367
mRNA
template, carries code to cytosol for translation
368
tRNA
carries triplet code to amino acid sequence
369
Translation termination
stops codon reaches A site and release factors bind. Water adds and frees the polypeptide
370
Hardy Weinberg Criteria
shows no change in allelle frequencies over time. No selection of fittest, has random mating, migration does not affect gene pool, large population, mutational equilibrium
371
Non polar alkyl amino acids
GAPVLIM
372
Non Polar Aromatic Amino Acids
phenylalanine, trp
373
Polar neutral amino acids
S, threonine, Asp, glu, cys, tyr
374
polar acidic amino acids
aspartic and glutamic acid
375
Polar basic amino acids
has nitrogen, his, lys, arg
376
Histidine
has pKa close to neutral, can be pronated or depronated
377
Proline
secondary alpha amino, disrupts alpha helixs and makes kinks
378
Glycine
not chiral, very flexible- disrupts alpha helix
379
Cysteine
extracellular= oxidizing and forms disulfide bridges
380
amino group of amino acids
proton accept, basic, pKa=9- Nucleophile
381
secondary protein structure
alpha helix, beta sheet. Has hydrogen bonds
382
tertiary protiein structure
hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic, vanderwalls, disulfide
383
quartenary protein structure
hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic, vanderwalls, disulfide- between subunits
384
How does temperature change affect proteins
changes folding (2,3,4)
385
How does acidic affect proteins
changes ionic bonds (3,4)
386
How do chemicals affect proteins
changes hydrogen bonds (all)
387
How does enzyme affect proteins
between amino acids (1)
388
prophase
condense, membrane dissolves, begin to migrate
389
metaphase
membrane is gone, begin to line up, cetromeres are opposite with microtubules
390
anaphase
microtubules pull (at kinetochore), 4 chromatids
391
telophase
unwinds, furrows, membrane forms
392
PCR
makes many copies of DNA using taq polymerase
393
terpenes
lipids, 5 carbon isoprene, helps make steroids
394
Z line
sacromere, anchors actin, shortens in contraction
395
A band
Myosin and actin, no change in contraction
396
I band
just actin, moves, gets smaller in contraction
397
titin
elastic, attatches myosin to Z line
398
PTH
secreted when blood calcium is low, stimulates osteoclasts to absorb more bone
399
atypical genotypes
close together on loci, may be inherited as pair. No crossing over
400
Fecundity
selected for, potential to bear children
401
Calcitonin
secreted when blood calcium is high, decreases osteoclasts, decreases blood calcium
402
Allosteric
reversible, non covalent
403
DNA methylation
silences DNA, adds methyl to cytosine and adenine to tightly coil DNA and inactivate
404
CpG islands
high Cytosine and guanine in the promoter regions, high methylation and deactylation are inactive
405
Alternative splicing
one gene can code for multiple proteins when spliced differently
406
Mitosis
uses divisions to mulitply, makes identical cells, BODY cells
407
Meiosis
contributes to genetic variety, makes gametes. Is a reduction division (46 to 23 chromosomes)
408
interphase
growth, replication, cell processes (still have 46 chromosomes but each has a pair... now have 92 chromatids)
409
crossing over
in prophase 1, when homologous chromosomes are lined up and transfer/ exchange genetic information
410
recombinant chromosomes
contributes to variety as a result of crossing over
411
Metaphase Meiosis 1
chromosomes line up as 2 pairs in the middle. Each pair moves to one side
412
prophase meiosis 1
homologous pairs, crossing over
413
Products of meiosis part 2
4 cells
414
Chromosome # before and after mitosis
46 paired, 92 chromatids before and 46 chromosomes, 46 chromatids per daughter after (each pair splits)
415
Chromosome # before and after meiosis 1
46, 92 (like in interphase) to 23 chromosomes, 46 chromatids (each pair set splits)
416
Chromosome # before and after meiosis 2
23 chromosomes, 23 chromatids (each single) in 4 cells
417
diploid
2n, 2 SETS of chromosomes
418
evolutionary game theory
competitive or cooperative strategy to maximize reproductive success and maximize fitness
419
spermatids
formed after meiosis 2
420
What is mRNA complementary to
anti coding
421
How do rods work to process light?
turn off when light is present and causes cascade by turning on
422
rhodopsin
in rod, has retinal
423
retinal
light causes shape change (cis/bent to trans/straight), triggers rhodopsin to change shape
424
transducin
shape change of rhodopsin causes transducin to break away and alpha subunit binds phosphodiesterase
425
phosphodiesterase in phototransduction
converts cGMP to GMP
426
GMP in phototransduction
GMP causes sodium chanells to close, hyperpolarization, and rods to turn off
427
bipolar cells
rods off allows center bipolar cells to turn on, and signal optic nerve
428
Hershey Chase experiement
pellet incorporated DNA, surfactant had external
