Biochem Flashcards
1
Q
Oxidative phosphorylation
A
oxidizing NADH and FADH2 to make proton gradient for ETC to make ATP
2
Q
electron transport chain
A
electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed through electron carriers to oxygen to make water and protons are pumped from matrix to intermembrane space
3
Q
Ubiquinone
A
Q, oxidized form of coenzyme Q
4
Q
Ubiquinol
A
QH2, reduced form of coenzyme Q
5
Q
ETC complex 1
A
NADH dehydrogenase, transfer 2 electrons from NADH to ubiquinone and 4 protons pumped to intermembrane space
6
Q
ETC complex 2
A
succinate DH, transfer 2 electrons from FADH2 to ubiquinone
7
Q
ETC complex 3
A
coenzyme Q cytochrome C oxidoreductase, transfer 2 electrons from ubiquinol to 2 molecules of cytochrome C (Fe3+), 3 protons pumped to intermembrane space
8
Q
ETC complex 4
A
cytochrome C oxidase, transfer 2 electrons from cytochrome C (Fe2+) to oxygen, and 2 protons pumped to intermembrane space (Oxygen is final electron acceptor)
9
Q
Electrochemical gradient of ETC
A
outside membrane is positive (many protons) which causes protons to be pumped through ATP synthase into the membrane. pumping casues synthase to spin so ADP +P and makes ATP
10
Q
Proton gradient
A
accumulation of protons in the intermembrane space, ATP synthase pumps them back to matrix causing spining to use ADP to make ATP
11
Q
A
12
Q
What inhibits ATP synthase
A
oligomycin or uncoupling agent (uncouples gradient, inhibits pumping)
13
Q
Lipoprotein lipase
A
breaks chylomicrons down to individual fatty acids and free glycerol. In capillary bed
14
Q
VLDL
A
in liver, glucose makes ATP, glycogen, and fatty acids. FA and cholesterol are packaged into VLDL
15
Q
which amino acids are exclusivley ketogenic
A
lysine and leucine
16
Q
Net glycolysis products
A
2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, 2 NADH
17
Q
Rate limiting enzyme of glycolysis
A
PFK-1
18
Q
Irreversible enzymes of glycolysis
A
hexo/gluco kinase, PFK, pyruvate kinase
19
Q
Glycolysis
A
doesnt need oxygen, in cytosol, transporters are mobilized by insulin
20
Q
gluconeogenesis
A
pruvate to glucose, differs at 3 irreversible steps
21
Q
Cost of glyconeogeneis
A
4 ATP, 2 GTP, 2 NADH
22
Q
goals of PPP
A
makes ribose5p for nucleotides, or converts to f6p for entry into glycolysis and NADPH
23
Q
rate limiting step of PPP
A
G6P DH, converts G6P to 6-phosphogluconate
24
Q
Goals of TCA
A
2 pyruvate into 6 NADH, 2 ATP, 2 FADH plus 2NADH from prep
25
What goes into ETC
4 ATP (2 glyc, 2 TCA), 10NADH (2gly,2 prep, 6TCA) 2 FADH (TCA) makes 38 ATP
26
What parts of ETC do NADH use
1,3,4
27
What parts of ETC does FADH2 use
2,3,4
28
lub
tricuspid and mitral valve shut
29
dub
pulmonary and aorta shut, tricuspid and mitral open
30
RBC
no mitochondira, dont use oxygen
31
heart
uses systemic circulation, gets blood via coronary vessels
32
lungs
uses systemic circulation, gets blood via bronchial vessels
33
Inhalation
diaphragm and external intercostals contract, increase volume and decrease pressure, causes lungs to expand
34
Exhalation
relaxation of diaphragm and external intercostal muscles, decreases volume and increase pressure as air moves out
35
Lymphatic system
insterstitial fluid accumulates due to pressure, drains as lymph and filters then returns to blood. Fats from SI absorbs in lacetals, matures lympcytes, proteins, cells and fluid return to circulation
36
Glomerulus
afferent arteriole enters, efferent leaves. Turns blood into filtrate into bowmans capsule
37
PCT
reabosrbs amino acids, ions, glucose, and water
38
How does the PCT work
has Na/K pumps using ATP to move particles against their gradient to reabsorb and symport with glucose
39
Descending vs. ascending LOH
water absorbed in descending, reabsorbs ions in ascending
40
countercurrent multiplication
parts of LOH are opposite. Ascending makes adrenal medulla salty, so water is passivley absorbed in descending
41
DCT
loops back to glomerulus, reabsorbs ions/nutrients, makes juxtaglomerular apparatus which controls BP
42
Collecting duct
collects anything leftover in glomerulus, reabsorbs water and urine
43
efferent arterioles
connect to capillaries and returns nutrients to blood and body. Uses the renal vein
44
urination
calyx collects urine, moves to renal pelvis, then to ureter, bladder, and urethra
45
juxtaglomerular cells
release renin when BP is low
46
How liver controls BP
releases angiotensinogen, which renin activates to make angiotensin 1
47
ACE
converts ang 1 to angiotensin 2 at endothelial cells, cleaves off 2 amino acids, now has 8
48
angiotensin 2 effects
smooth muscle, kidneys, pituatary gland, adrenal gland
49
angiotensin 2 and smooth muscle effects
causes constriction and incresaes restriction to raise BP
50
angiotensin 2 and kidneys effects
increases kidneys ability to hold water, increases stroke volume
51
Angiotensin 2 and pituitary effects
ADH secreted when high osmolarity, or low BP/V, increases resistance, volume, BP, and water reabsorption via channels. Decreases osmolarity
52
Angiotensin 2 and adrenal gland effects
aldosterone secreted which increases volume by increasing sodium reabsorption and water moves with in. No change in osmolarity
53
Aldosterone system
angiotensin 2 signals cholesterol to make more aldosterone, high potassium signal aldosterone release
54
Fatty acid metabolism
fatty acid moves into SI and reforms TAG, uses liproproteins to make chylomicrons
55
Chylomicrons
packaged TAG, travel in lacetals and drain into veins and capillaries
56
Lipoprotein lipase
breaks down TAG in chylomicrons into FA to create adipose. activated by insulin '
57
What happens to excess glucose
in the liver, it makes fatty acids which are transported as VLDL
58
hormone sensitive lipase
breaks down TAG when insulin is low, and when epinephrine is high. Breaks adipose
59
rate limiting enzyme of fatty acid synthesis
acetyl CoA carboxylase, activated by citrate, insulin
60
citrate shuttle
enzymes for FA synthesis are in cytosol) move from mitochondira to cytoplasm (citrate -> oAA -> pyruvate/acetyl CoA)
61
FA oxidation
makes 27 ATP per 16C, plus 80 ATP in krebs (10 ATP per acetyl coA 16C makes 8 acetyl CoA)
62
rate limiting enzyme of FA oxidation
carnitine acyl transferase, attatches acyl to carnitine to move to matrix
63
FA oxidation regulation
malonyl coA inhibits CAT-1
64
glucogenic amino acids
amino acids used for glucose synthesis, converted to pyruvate, OAA, or TCA intermediated
65
ketogenic amino acids
amino acids used for carbon backbone for FA synthesis, converted to acetyl coA
66
goal of transamination
amino group is transferred for excretion, and carbo skeleton makes glutamate or use alpha KG for glycolysis
67
follicular cycle
follicles grow, increase estrogen, decrease FSH/LH. Proliferative phase. Increase progesterone and inhibin (blocks FSH)
68
End of follicular phase
Estrogen is really high, increase LH and some FSH (mostly blocked)- luteal surge
69
Luteal phase
develops Cl due to increase of FSH and LH, decresae Estrogen and incresae progeterone to supress FSH/LH, egg implants, inhibin increases
70
Menses
CL dies off and progesterone and estrogen decrease
71
Pregnancy
egg implants, produces HCG to keep CL alive, placenta now makes estrogen to maintain lining, supresses FSH/LH for no ovulation
72
Lac operon
default is opressed, high lactose means lactose binds repressor and leaves operator for polymerase to move to
73
allolactase
causes conformation change so that repressor leaves
74
lac z and lac y
lac Z works with beta gal, lac y works for lac transcription
75
TLC
stationary silica is polar, Rf= distance traveled solute/ distance solvent
76
anabolic
small to large
77
Where is Mg used in glycolysis
glucose to G6P and 2 pglycerate to PEP
78
what happens if there is no oxygen in glycolysis
fermentation
79
PDH activators
coA, NAD+, pyruvate, AMP, Ca (exercising, need energy)
80
PDH inhibitors
Acetyl CoA, NADH, ATP, Fatty acids
81
ATP synthases
gradient allows flow from outer membrane intro matrix, causes spinning to make ATP at F1
82
FA synthase
has two subunits with thiol
83
what happens to palmitic acid
oxidized or makes TAG and VLDL
84
What regulated fatty acid synthesis
(+) is citrate, insulin. (-) is glucagon, long FA
85
What are long FA used for
oxidized, transfer electrons to carriers for ETC. Or break acetyl coA to TCA for more oxidation
86
How many ATP from palmitic acid
107: 80 in TCA (10 ATP per 8 acetyl coA) and 27 from electron carriers
87
Glycolysis and TCA products
4 ATP, 10 NADH, 2 FADH2 for ETC
88
beta oxidation
every other carbon on fatty acid is oxidized at beta carbon
89
How does malonyl coA inhibit FA oxidation
malonyl coA synthesizes FA, if theres lots of malonyl coA then its being synthesized, dont break it down
90
Where does FA synthesis and oxidation take place
synthesis in cytosol, oxidation in mitochondria
91
prostaglandins
lipids of inflammatory reactions
92
lipid rafts
ordered, rich in steroids (cholesterol), helps localize materials
93
How do allosteric modulators bind
reversibly, non covalent, not at active site
94
How does glucagon maintain glucose levels after absorption state
stimulated release of phosphorylated glucose at non-reducing end
95
ATP hydrolysis
cleaves phosphoanhydride bond between gamma and beta phosphate
96
substrate level phosphorylation
synthesis of ATP by the transfer of a phosphate from a substrate to ADP via kinase in glycolysis and TCA
97
dehydrogenase enzyme
transfers 2 hydrogen to electron acceptors, reduces the electron acceptor
98
oxidative phosphorylation
makes ATP using oxygen to oxidize electron carriers (NADH) to make ATP (ETC)
99
Bile
breaks down FA to increase SA and lipase breaks down
100
CDK
default inactive, activated by cyclins, activates Rb
101
Checkpoints of cell cycle
Between G1 and S, and G2 and M
102
Rb
when phosphorylayed by CDK its inactive, cant inhibit DNA replication
103
P53
TSG, induces expression of p21 which inhibits CDK, stops cell cycle progression to repair and causes apoptosis
104
Osmotic pressure in lymphatic system
hydrostatic pressure goes down in later part of capillary (higher concentration, fluid is pulled in) osmotic pressure is high, in beginning of capillary, hydrostatic is high, causing a net flow OUT
105
hydrostatic pressure
force exerted by the blood in vessels or in the heart chamber, drives fluid out of capillaries into tissues
106
osmotic pressure
sucks, pulls water in
107
agonist
chemicals that mimic a neurotransmitter at receptor. Increase effects
108
antagonist
blocks or imepedes neurotransmitter at active site
109
Keto vs. enol
keto is aldehyde or keton, enol is alcohol with Carbon to Carbon double bond - keto is more stable, enol is also cyclic sugar
110
kinetic product
fastest, low temp
111
thermodynamic product
most stable, slower, high temp
112
strecker synthesis
ammonia adds to aldehyde forming an imine, cyanide attacks then hydrolyze(not specific), forms racemic alpha amino acid
113
gabriel synthesis
use diethyl bromomalonate to modify nitrogen of pthalamide salt. add alkyl, hydrolyze, decarboxylate (non specific) with heat to racemic amino acid
114
lower pKa
Stronger acid
115
How many FADH, NADH from acetyl coA
3 NADH, 1 FADH per acetyl coA
116
lower Km
faster converstion to products at non saturating concentrations of substrate
117
trigylcerols
can be ester hydrolyzed to smaller product
118
ester hydrolysis with base
nucleophillic addition of OH to an Ester, then OR leaves and carboxylic acid forms, then OR takes H forming ROH and carbonxylate anion
119
Carboxylate anion
carboxylic acid with depronated oxygen at hydroxyl
120
saponification
uses NaOH soap for base promoted ester hydrolysis of fats. OR group is long fatty acid tail
121
Fischer projection
Horizontal is wedged, vertical is dashed. D sugar have last chiral OH on the right
122
D vs L glucose
enantiomers- differ at ALL chiral Carbon. L must have last OH on left.
123
Fischer to Cyclic sugars
Axial is right- draw downwards, equatorial is left- drawn upwards
124
pyranose vs. furanose
pyranose is 6 rings, furanose is 5 rings
125
alpha vs. beta glycosidic bond
alpha means anomeric is bonded axial and down. Beta is bonded equatorial and up
126
reducing sugar
OH on anomeric carbon
127
glucose stereoisomers
galactose, mannose
128
hemi vs. full acetal/ketal
hemi has one OH and one OR, full has two OR
129
beta glycosidic link
Cis with respect to anomeric carbon is beta.
130
staggered vs. eclipsed
Anti staggered- MOST STABLE (largest are 180 apart), eclipsed- largest dont overlap, but has ovelap. total eclipsed- least stable, largest overlap
131
Gauche conformation
60 degrees apart, has higher energy than anti staggered. large groups are not opposite but do not overlap- has steric hinderance
132
Total eclipsed conformation
has torsion and steric hinderance. Least stable
133
Ka
extent to which acid dissociates, stronger has higher Ka
134
ICE table
use to find concentrations of acid/base dissociation. I= initial, C= Change (use X), E= equilibrium, assume 1-x for change and loss is negligible
135
disaccharide reaction
dehydration reaction, forms covalent glycosidic bond
136
Where is glyclosidic bond on DNA
between sugar and base
137
Purine vs. pyrimidine
Purines are two rings, AG. Pyrimidine are one ring: CT/U
138
Adenine vs. Guanine
two rings, guanine has carbonyl (C=O), adenine has no carbonyl, has NH2 and an extra double bond (3 in ring)
139
Which bases pair with triple bond in DNA
guanine and cytosine (Guanine donates 2 pairs, and accepts 1 pair from cytosine)
140
Cytosine vs. thymine
thymine has two carbonyl (C=O), cytosine has one C=O and a NH2 with 2 double bonds in ring
141
Thymine vs. uracil
Thymine has methyl group on double bond
142
How does lower pH affect heme affinity
Lower pH means lower Heme affinity- reaction will shift left to more CO2, and cause release of oxygen
143
when does hemoglobin curve shift right
reduced affinity, higher CO2, low pH, higher temp. (more CO2 reacts to form bicarbonate and H+)
