Biology Flashcards
______ signaling is a way of cellular specialization where one group of cells can influence another group of cells to differentiate
Inductive
The three basic tenets of cell theory are that all living things are composed of cells, the cell is the basic functional unit of life and _____
Cells arise only from pre-existing cells
The fourth tenet added to the cell theory later on is that
Cells carry genetic information in the form of DNA and is passed on from parent to daughter cell
Eukaryotic are single celled or multi celled organisms?
They can be both single or Multi-cellular
Prokaryotic organisms are aways _____ cellular
single
________ cellular organisms do not contain a nucleus
prokaryotic
The nucleus is surrounded immediately by the ______
nuclear membrane/envelope
________ __________ allow for selective two-way exchange of material the cytoplasm and nucleus
nuclear pores
What are the proteins called that DNA is wound around?
Histones
This section of the nucleus is where RNA is synthesized
The nucleolus
Which membrane of the Mitochondria contain the cristae?
The Inner Membrane (this contains the molecules and enzymes of the ETC)
The space inside of the inter Mitochondrial membrane is known as
Mitochondrial Matrix
Lysosomes often function in collaboration with _______ to help transport, ________, and sort cell material
Endosomes, package
Which ER has ribosomes
Rough ER
Ribosomes, on the rough ER, permit the ________ of proteins destined for secretion directly into its lumen
translation
Primary function of the smooth ER
lipid synthesis
T or F, a function of the rough ER is to detox certain drugs and poisons
F, smooth ER does this
Materials from the ER are transferred to the ______ in vesicles
Golgi
What is a primary function of perioxosomes?
breakdown of very long chain fatty acids via beta oxidation
Microfilaments are made of _____
solid actin
Microtubules are made of ______
hollow tubulin
Actin can use ____ to generate force for movement by interacting with _____ during muscle contraction
ATP, myosin
_____ plays a role in cytokinesis
Microfilaments
During Mitosis, the ____ ______ is formed by Microfilaments
cleavage furrow
Motor proteins Kinesin and _____ carry vesicles on a pathways made of _______
Dynein, Microtubules
T or F, cilia are used for the movement of the cell itsef
F, that is flagella
Cilia are used for the movement of ___
materials along the surface of a cell
Cilia and Flagella share a common structure known as the_____
9+2 structure (9microtubules in a ring, with 2 in the center)
During mitosis, _______ migrate to the opposite poles of the dividing cell and form the mitotic spindle
Centrioles
Centrioles are made up of ________
microtubules
Epithelial cells are often polarized (T or F)
True, one sides faces a lumen or the outside world, and the other faces blood vessels/structural cells
Simple epithelia have ____ layer(s) of cells
1
Stratified epithelia have _____ layer(s) of cells
Multiple
Pseudostratified epithelia have _____ layer(s) of cells
1, though appear to have many d/t differences in cell height
Cuboidal vs. Squamos cell Type
cuboidal are cubed, squamos are flat
Bacteria are prokaryotes or eukaryotes?
prokaryotes
All bacteria contain ______ and _______
cell membrane and cyotplasm
Rod-Shaped Bacteria
bacilli
Sprial-Shaped Bacteria
spirilii
Spherical shaped bacteria
cocci
A Gram negative cell wall is
pink/red
A Gram Positive cell wall is
purple
A Gram (+/-) cell wall has a thick layer of peptidoglycan
gram positive
In addition to a singular circular chromosome, many bacteria also contain
plasmids, which often carry genes that may provide antibiotic resistance
_______ are a subset of plasmids capable of integrating into the genome of the bacteria
episomes
What are the three bacterial genetic recombination processes?
Transformation, conjugation, and transduction
This process of recombination results from the integration of foreign genetic material into the host genome
transformation
This process of recombination is when a bridge is formed that facilitates the transfer of genetic material
Conjugation
This process of recombination requires a vector
Transduction (duct/duck=vector)
A ________ is a virus that specifically targets bacteria
bacteriophage
T or F, viral genomes can be made of either single or double stranded DNA or RNA
True
Single Stranded DNA can be either ____ sense or _______ sense
positive, negative
_____ sense implies that the genome may be directly translated to functional proteins (like mRNA)
positive
_____ sense RNA acts as a template for synthesis of a complementary strand, which is then used as a template of protein synthesis
negative
_______ are infectious proteins that trigger misfolding of other proteins
prions
Where does fertilization typically occur
in the ampulla of the fallopian tube
________ _______ is when the first sperm penetrates , it causes a release of calcium ions (preventing more sperm from fertilizing) and increases the metabolic rate
the cortical reaction
These type of twins results from the fertilization of two eggs by two sperm
Fraternal (Dizygotic)
Before the placenta is established, the embryo is supported by the
yolk sac
This germ layer becomes much of the musculoskeletal, circulatory, and excretory systems, including gonads.
Mesoderm
This germ layer becomes epidermis, hair, nails, and anal canal
Ectoderm
This germ layer becomes epithelial linings of respiratory and digestive tracts
Endoderm
The development of the Nervous System is known as
Neurulation
The neural tube turns into _____
Central Nervous System
These type of stem cells are ablet o differentiate into all cell types, including the three germ layers and placental structures
Totipotent (think Total cells)
These stem cells are able to differentiate into the three germ layers and derivatives
Pluripotent
These stem cells are able only to differentiate into a specific subset of cell type
Multipotent
Uterine contractions are coordinated by
oxytocin and prostaglandins
Like all other cells (besides RBC), neurons have _____
a nucleus (found in the cell body)
The cell body of a neuron is also known as a _____
soma
appendages emanating from the soma are known as ______
dendrites
Dendrites receive incoming messages, and information is transmitted through the cell body before it reaches the _______
axon hillock
The axon hillock ______ incoming signals
integrates
Most nerve fibers are insulated by ______
myelin
Myelin is produced by _____ in the CNS and by _______ in the PNS
oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells
At the end of an axon is the _____
nerve terminal
These are found along the axon membrane (small breaks in the myelin sheath)
nodes of Ranvier
In the CNS, axons may be bundled together to form a
tract
Multiple neurons can be bundled together to form a ____ in the PNS
nerve
These cells ingest and break down waste products in the CNS
microglia
For neurons, a cells resting membrane potential is
-70 mV
The concentration of Na+ is ______ outside the cell
higher, therefore there is a driving force pushing it into the cell
The concentration of K+ is ______ outside the cell
lower, therefore there is a driving force to move K+ out of the cell
If an axon hillock receives enough excitatory input to be depolarized to the threshold value, what will happen?
an action potential will be triggered
When no amount of stimulation can cause another action potential to occur, this is known as
absolute refractory period
When there must be greater than normal stimulation to cause an action potential, this is known as
relative refractory period
_____ neurons ascend in the spinal cord towards the brain
afferent
_______ neurons exit the spinal cord on their way to the rest of the body
efferent
Is the (grey/white) matter of the brain myelinated?
white
what are the four sections of the spinal cord
cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral
_____ summation refers to the integration of multiple signals near each other in time
temporal
______ summation refers to the addition of multiple signals near each other in space
spatial
The refractory period occurs when the axon is ______
hyperpolarized
What typically passes through our cell membrane?
Small, nonpolar molecules (i.e. gases, O2 or CO2) via passive diffusion
This small, polar molecule passes through the cell membrane very slowly because it is _____
Water (H2O), polar
Large, nonpolar molecules (CAN/CANNOT) pass through our cell membrane?
CAN, but slowly (think: benzene)
Large, polar molecules (CAN/CANNOT) pass through our cell membrane?
CANNOT
Charged particles (CAN/CANNOT) pass through our cell membrane?
CANNOT
Phospholipids are made up of
-2 Fatty Acids
-Glycerol
-Phosphate group (polar head group)
What are the components found in our cell membrane?
-Phospholipids
-Cholesterol (inserts itself between phospholipids, maintains fluidity of cell membrane)
-Proteins (integral/transmembrane and peripheral)
These membrane proteins span the entire cell membrane
Integral
Channel proteins generally (DO/ DO NOT) require energy for ions to cross
DO NOT(think; they are just a tunnel, not a carrier protein that changes shape)
T or F, Carrier proteins can help ions go against the concentration gradient
T
A chain of sugars attached to any membrane proteins
a Glycoprotein
The purpose of glycoproteins are
for signaling
The three main factors that affect membrane fluidity
- temperature
- cholesterol
- unsaturation
phospholipids at a low temperature do not have alot of energy, and huddle close together, and therefore have (high/low) fluidity
low fluidity
As temperature increases, phospholipids are more spread out, and have (decreased/increased) fluidity
increased
The presence of cholesterol in a membrane at low temps (increases/decreases) distance between phospholipids, and therefore the fluidity is (increased/decreased)
increases, increased
the presence of cholesterol in a membrane at high temps causes (increased/decreased) fluidity and why
decreased fluidity, since the phospholipids were already spread out due to high temp, the cholesterol actually draws them closer together, decreasing fluidity
If we have an unsaturated fatty acid, double bonds (ARE/ ARE NOT) present
ARE, causing kinks/bends, therefore causing increased distance between phospholipids, thus, increasing fluidity
the process of moving a phospholipid from the outside of the membrane to inner cell membrane is known as
transmembrane diffusion, or “flip flop”. this is uncatalyzed movement, and is slow
the process of a phospholipid moving in any direction around it
lateral diffusion, an uncatalyzed movement, and it is fast
A flip of phospholipids from the outside to inside with the use of a catalyst is called
Flipase (fast process)
A flop of phospholipids from the inside to the outside with the use of a catalyst is called
Flopase (fast process)
What is the name of the enzyme that brings a phospholipid from the outer to inner membrane, and then another from inner to outer is known as ____
scramblase (fast process)
T or F, facilitated diffusion requires the input of energy
false, but it is able to transport polar molecules and larger ions (as there are a membrane transport channel: glycoproteins)
Transport that directly uses ATP for energy is considered …
primary active transport
…. moves multiple molecules across the membrane, powering uphill movement of molecules, with the downhill movement of others
secondary active transport
A Potassium leak channel allows K+ out via what sort of transport
passive (facilitated diffusion, no energy required, as K+ flows from high to low concentration gradient_
The different types (4) of passive transport are:
-diffusion
-osmosis
-filtration
-facilitated diffusion
An example of secondary active transport is
a Na+, and Glucose Symport (using a gradient set up using energy, so indirectly using ATP)
In antiport, the two molecules move in the same direction (T or F)
False, they move in opposite directions
A chloride channel is an example of
facilitated diffusion, and the protein goes through a conformational change to bring the Cl- from the outside to the inside of the cell
Whatever there is more of in a solution / what does the dissolving is referred to as
the solvent
______ is the movement of particles from high concentration to the low concentration
Diffusion
A solution with a high concentration of solute is also known as
hypertonic
Osmolarity is the flow of water or solute
water
A solvent will flow from an area of (hyper/hypo) tonic solution to a (hyper/hypo) tonic solution
Hypotonic (less solute= more water) to hypertonic (more solute= less water)
The Equilibrium Potential of K+ is -92mV, and occurs when…
the net movement of K+ is equal
The ion that has a membrane potential of +67 mV is
Na+
The ion that has a membrane potential of -86mV is
Cl-
The ion that has a membrane potential of +123mV is
Ca2+
Cardiac muscle contains what type of cell junctions
Gap Junctions (common in cells that require propagation of electrical signal)
What is the name of the transmembrane ion channel that open/closes in response to the binding of a ligand
Ligand-Gated Ion Channels
These channels rely on the difference in membrane potential
voltage gated channels
Receptor Tyrosine Kinases (RTKs) are an example of what kind of receptor
Enzyme-linked receptor
T or F, receptor Tyrosine kinases occur in pairs
True, they come together and form a “cross-linked” dimer, and phosphorylate each other
Enzyme linked receptors function how,
by turning an extracellular chemical signal into enzyme activity inside the cell
Lipid Destruction is a function of what organelle
Perioxisome
where in the cell does glycolysis occur?
cytoplasm
where do post - translational modifications of proteins occur?
rough endoplasmic reticulum
What is the stack of Golgi referred to as that is closest to the ER
The Cis Golgi
The secretory pathway includes which organelles
ER, golgi, lysosomes and cell membrane
Crinophagy is when lysosomes…
digest excess secretory products
The alveoli are lined with (simple/stratified) epithelium and why?
simple, so that carbon dioxide and oxygen are able to diffuse easier across one layer of cells
epithelial cells are attached to the
basement membrane
how do epithelial cells get nutrients, since they are avascular?
from the basement membrane beneath epithelial cells
A map of your body in your brain is known as
the somatosensory homunculus
Our ability to sense pain is known as
nociception
A chemical signal that is released by one member of a species, and is sensed by another member of hte species and it triggers an innate response
Pheromones
T or F, each taste bud contains all of the cells with abilities to detect each of the five tastes
True
Sweet, umami, and bitter rely on
G Protein Coupled receptors
Sour and Salty taste cells rely on
Ion Channels
Which waves have a lower frequency, alpha or beta?
alpha
Who said that dreams represent our unconscious wishes, urges, and feelings
Freud
Four main groups of psychoactive drugs
-depressants
-stimulants
-hallucinogens
-opiates
Depressants and stimulants (CAN/CAN’T) cancel each other out
Cannot
Drugs that lower your bodies basic functions and neural activity
Depressants
Benzodiazepines (enhance/inhibit) your brains response to GABA (inhibitory neurotransmitter)
enhances
Which method of drug entry is the fastest?
Intravenous (few seconds), whereas inhalation is (approx 10 seconds)
This biological molecule accompanies oxidation reactions
NADP+ (an electron acceptor)
Coimmunoprecipitation is a common technique used to
identify interactions between two proteins
Thin Layer Chromatography is often used in organic chemistry for
testing the progress of a reaction
a decarboxylation reaction is the removal of
CO2 ( a carboxyl group)
Binding between the enzyme and substrate is strongest at what point
during the transition state
a (n) _____ site is any binding site outside of the active site
allosteric site
what is the first immune cell present at the site of infection
neutrophils, as they are the primary rapid innate host defense
T or F; neutrophils display MHCII on their surface?
False
Because B cell receptors and T cell receptors are created at random, this puts us at higher risk for
autoimmune diseases
Catalysts (do/do not) impact the end product of a reaction
do not
Increased levels of T3 and T4 would lead to
increased levels of basal metabolic rate (they are metabolism hormones)
The FLATPEG mnemonic for hormones from the Anterior Pituitary are:
F: FSH (follicle stimulating)
L: LH (luteinizing)
A: ACTH (adreocorticotropic)
T: TSH (thyroid stimulating)
P: PRL (prolactin)
E: endorphins
G: GH (growth)
epinephrine is secreted from the adrenal ______
medulla
when a naive B cell encounters an antigen that fits into its membrane-bound antibody, it quickly divides to become __ or ___
a memory B cell Or an effector B cell(plasma cell)
What has to be guranteed to happen in order to set off B cell differentiation
The antigen must effectively bind to the naive B cell’s membrane bound antibody
A effector B cell is also known as a
plasma cell
Plasma B cells are capable of
secreting antibodies
B cells also express a specialized receptor known as ______ that plays an important role in signaling pathwasy
B Cell Receptor (BCR)
T cells are formed in the ____ and then migrate to the _____ to become mature T cells
bone marrow; thymus
In the thymus, T-cells begin forming these receptors
T-Cell Receptors (TCR)
CD4
CD8
(all T-cells express TCR, and either CD4 or CD8, not both)
T cell receptors can only recognize antigens bound to certain receptor molecules known as
MHCI and MHCII
When a T cell undergoes positive selection, what is happening?
The T cell is testing MHCI and MHCIIs ability to distinguish between self and non-self proteins
When a T cell undergoes negative selection, what is happening?
The T cell is testing binding capabilities of CD4 and CD8
After a T cell undergoes selection processes, what are the three possible outcomes?
-Helper T Cells (CD4)
-Cytotoxic T Cells (CD8)
-T Regulatory Cells (CD4 and CD25)
What are the two types of immunity that the adaptive immune system provides?
-Humoral
-Cell-Mediated
This type of immunity is from antibodies produced by plasma cells (effector B cells)
humoral immunity
This type of immunity is acquired through T cells from someone who is immune to the disease or infection
cell-mediated immunity. it is carried out by cytotoxic cells
T cells and B cells are part of which type of immunity (adaptive/innate)
Adaptive
what are they phagocytic cells ?
neutrophils, macrophages, dendritic cells
Phagocytes are all (what type of cell)
white blood cells/leukocytes
Phagocytes are specific or non-specific responses to the immune system?
non-specific
Gel filtration separates proteins based off
size
Ion exchange chromatography separates proteins based off
charge
SDS-Page is a technique used to separate proteins based off of
size
A reaction that has a Keq > 1 is _____
exergonic (releases energy)
The process by which nucleic acids are transferred from viruses to cells is known as
Transduction
________ is the exchange of nucleic acids between bacteria.
Conjugation
__________ is the process that transfers genetic material from the environment into bacteria.
Transformation
contraction of the diaphragm results in (inhalation/exhalation)
inhalation
Inhalation results in increased/decrease intrathoracic pressure
decreased
____ is the initial velocity of an enzymatic reaction
V0
_____ is the maximum velocity of a reaction
VMax
The cells that display MHCI and II are
macrophages, part of the innate immune system
neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils are part of
the innate immune system
These cells produce antibodies
B cells ( part of the humoral immunity)
( B or T) cells mature in the bone marrow and then spleen
B cells
(B or T) cells mature in the thymus
T cells
These specific T cells are known as CD 4, and attach to which MHC
Helper T Cells. and MHC II
These specific T cells are known as CD8 and attach to which MHC
Cytotoxic, and MHC I
An antigen-presenting cell capable of phagocytosis + this cell secretes cytokines, signaling both innate and adaptive immune responses
dendritic cell
Proteolytic Cleavage is what type of chemical reaction?
Hydrolysis
Cartilage is vascular or avascular
ALL cartilage is Avascular (which means no blood vessels or lymphatic vessels, and it is not innervated)
fibrous connective tissue that binds muslce to bone
a tendon
pieces of fibrous tissue that binds bone to bone
a ligament
Tor F; both prokaryotes and eukaryotes contain mitochondria
F; mitochondria are only found in eukaryotes
T or F; both prokayotes and eukaryotes contain cell walls
T; they both can have cell walls, but not all do
This form of reproduction _______ is the sexual reproduction form in prokaryotes
conjugation (think- sex pilus, F-factor)
This is one of the key differences between mitosis and meiosis, and it occurs during anaphase
the splitting of centromeres (when sister chromatids separate); this occurs during mitosis, and during meisois 2 anaphase 2
This ______ is released by the posterior pituitary, and increases collecting duct permeability
ADH
This _____ stimulaties resorption of Na+ and Water, goal being for BP to increase
Aldosterone
The antagonist of Aldosterone
ANP
This ______ stimulates excretion of Na+ and Water
ANP
This model used in the field of psychology integrates the influence of biological predispositions and the environment, and attempts to explain a disorder, or its trajectory
the diathesis-stress model
Langerhans cells are _____ cells
dendritic (specialized immune cells in the skin and mucous membranes)
The role an individual takes in society during a period of illness can be described as :
The sick role (the societal role a sick individual takes, think: Sick; Societal)
The subjective experience of a sick individual can be described as:
The Illness Experience (think: Illness; Individual)
The speed of sounds is most fast in a what form of material?
solid (due to the strong bonds and close proximity of molecules)
what are the two main autonomic (subset of peripheral ns) neurotransmitters?
acetylcholine and norepinephrine
Transformation (bacterial replication) is done via what process
incorporation of genetic fragments
Thick, myelinated fibers (increase/decrease) conduction velocity
increase
macrophages are filled with ______ and this fulfills their primary purpose of phagocytosis
lysosomes
MH2 are found EXCLUSIVELY on ______
antigen presenting cells
What kind of inhibitors bind to the active site
competitive
Which region of a sarcomere will not change in size during a muscle contraction?
The A Band
This type of hormone is known to diffuse through the cell membrane of their target cell
steroid hormone
This type of hormone is known to rely on secondary messenger systems
peptide hormone
The descending limb of henle is ______ permeable to water and ________ permeable to ions
highly; barely
The ascending limb of henle is _______ permeable to water, and _______ permeable to ions
barely; highly
The ventral roots are composed of _____ neurons
motor
The dorsal roots are composed of ______ neurons
sensory
The idea of taking a long time to decipher the word”blue”written in red writing is an example of
The Stroop Effect
The idea that performance increases with emotional arousal (up to a point) is an example of
Yerkes-Dodson Law
operant condition is reward based (T or F)
true (rewards or punishments)
This is how well a study measures what it intends to do
internal validity
This is how well a study could be applied to other populations or societies
external validity
when a door opens and changes shape from a rectangle to a line, this is known as
perceptual constancy
electrons always frow from the ___ode to the ____ode
from the anode to the cathode (think alphabetical; A to C)
for electrolytic cells, the cell potential is ____
negative, meaning a potential input greater than the magnitude of the cell potential must be present for electrolysis to occur
galvanic/voltaic cells have a _____ cell potential
positive, thus, no input is required for these cells
The _____ has the highest reduction potential (and lowest oxidation potential )
the cathode
The ______ has the highest oxidation potential, and the lowest reduction potential
the anode
The ability of our brain to sort through a lot of stimuli to discern what is important information is known as
feature detection
What is the basic tenet of the theory of general intelligence?
Intelligence relies on a single ‘g factor’, which underlies performace in all cognitive domains.
What are the three tenets of the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence?
Analytical Intelligence (problem solving), practical intelligence (adapting to everyday life) , and creative intelligence (fostering insight)
_______ theory argues that behavior is primarily extrinsically motivated (people are more likely to act in a certain way if they know they are getting a reward)
Incentive Theory
_____ theory is the idea that people are motivated by their unfulfilled needs
needs based theory
Bandura created the social learning theory, that is most associated with which phrase of thought
“reciprocal determinism” which is cognition, behavior and context are all influencing each other
The idea that people perform simple tasks better when in the presence of other people is known as
social facilitation
The Elaboration Likelihood Model proposes ____ major routes to persuasion
2 (central and peripheral route to persuasion)
The _____-route of the elaboration likelihood model is one that is logic driven and uses facts as as means fo persuasion
central route
The _____ route of the elaboration likelihood model is one that uses peripheral cues to suggest positivity towards the message (think celebrity endorsement or positive emotions)
peripheral route
The idea that we tend to cut ourselves a break, while holding others 100% to their actions is known as
fundamental attribution error
_____ ______ are properties of compounds that are altered by the amount of substance present
colligative properties
________ are a group of genes that cause normal cells to become cancerous when they are mutated
proto-oncogenes (these play a crucial role in cell proliferation, and the cell cycle- so when mutated, it will be increasing cell proliferation of tumor cells)
The altered version of a protooncogene is known as
an oncogene
p53 is an example of a
tumor suppressor gene (keep the cell cycle in check- cancerous cells try to suppress these)
In order for an ______ ________ reaction to proceed spontaneously, the cell potential Ecell° for the net reaction must be positive
oxidation–reduction
Does a lighter or heavier molecule of gas diffuse faster?
a LIGHTER one
D-Glucose and D-Galactose are examples of
epimers
porphyrin is composed of
four pyrroles (fyi- heme contains a porphyrin ring)
