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A-level Biology > Biological components 1.2 > Flashcards

Biological components 1.2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Name the 4 main inorganic compounds humans need

A
  • Magnesium (Mg2+)
  • iron (Fe2+)
  • phosphate (Po43-)
  • calcium (Ca2+)
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2
Q

What is the importance of magnesium in living organisms?

A
  • plants= important constitute of chlorophyll therefore essential for photosynthesis.
  • mammals= magnesium needed for bones
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3
Q

What happens to a plant if there is a lack of magnesium?

A

Chlorosis= plants without magnesium in the soil cannot make cholophyll so leaves turn yellow.
This means photosynthesis cannot take place leading to stunted growth due to the lack of glucose.

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4
Q

What is the use of iron in humans?

A

Iron is a constituent of haemoglobin which transports oxygen in red blood cells.

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5
Q

What can a lack of iron lead to in humans?

A

Anaemia

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6
Q

What is the use of phosphate ions I’m living organisms?

A

Making nucleotides including ATP and are a constituent of phospholipids found in biological membranes.

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7
Q

What is the use of calcium in living organisms?

A

Important structural component of bones and teeth in mammals.
Component of plant cell walls providing strength.

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8
Q

What is the use of water in the body?

A
  • it’s a medium for metabolic reactions.

- important constituent of cells.

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9
Q

Why is water decribed to be a dipole/ polar molecule?

A

The hydrogen end is positively charge me and the oxygen is the negatively charged end but there is no overall charge.
(THESE CHARGES ARE NOT FULL CHARGES)

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10
Q

Where do hydrogen bonds from in water?

A

Between the positive on a hydrogen and negative on an oxygen of a different atom.

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11
Q

Describe a hydrogen bonds effect of water.

A
  • weak
  • when large numbers are present in water it makes the molecules hard to separate giving water a wide variety of physical properties.
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12
Q

List the properties of water

A
  • solvent
  • metabolite
  • high specific heat capacity
  • high latent heat of vaporisation
  • cohesive
  • high surface tension
  • high density
  • transparent
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13
Q

Describe the advantages of water being a solvent.

A
  • universal solvent due to the polarity meaning most things will dissolve in it because they attract other polar molecules like ions
  • transport medium like in the xylem of a plant transporting minerals.
  • non polar molecules like lipids don’t dissolve in water.
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14
Q

Describe water being a metabolite.

A

Water can be used in biochemical reactions like photosynthesis.
HYDROLYSIS: Water splits a molecule.
CONDENSATION: Water is a product of a reaction.

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15
Q

Describe why water having a high specific heat capacity is useful.

A
  • means a large amount of heat energy is needed to raise its temperature.
  • creates a habitat for animals in the ocean as the temperature doesn’t fluctuate too much so the animals don’t have to adapt.
  • endure the enzymes in cells to work efficiently
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16
Q

Explain why water having a high latent heat of vaporisation is useful.

A
  • means a lot of energy is needed to change it from liquid to gas.
  • useful in temperature control by sweating to keep the body cool.
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17
Q

Why is water being cohesive useful?

A
  • water molecules attract forming hydrogen bonds. These are individually weak but in large amounts are strong.
  • this allows columns of water to be drawn up the xylem vessel in plants.
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18
Q

Why is high surface tension useful in water?

A

-it allows a habitat to form for small insects like pond skaters because the molecules at the surface produce surface tension so the body of the insect is supported.

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19
Q

Why is high water density useful?

A

When frozen, ice is less dense than water so floats on the surface, insulating the water beneath so a stable habitat can form beneath.

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20
Q

What is water being transparent useful?

A

Light can pass through to allow aquatic plants to photosynthesise effectively.

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21
Q

What elements make up carbohydrates?

A

Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen

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22
Q

What is one single of sugar in carbohydrate (monomer).

A

Monosaccharide

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23
Q

What is the general formula for monosaccharides?

A

(CH2O)n

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24
Q

What determines the name of the monosaccharide?

A

The number of carbon atoms

Triose pentose hexose

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25
Q

What is the formula for a hexose?

A

C6 H12 O6

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26
Q

What shape do the carbon atoms of a monosaccharide form when dissolved in water?

A

Circle

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27
Q

What are the two isomers of glucose?

A

Alpha glucose

Beta glucose

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28
Q

How is beta glucose different to alpha glucose?

A

Beta glucose is the transverse of alpha glucose so the OH and H are swapped over.

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29
Q

What are the labels for the carbon atoms on a saccharide?

A

1-6

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30
Q

What are the functions of a monosaccharide?

A
  • source of energy in respiration. C-H and C-C bonds are broken to release energy, transferred to make ATP.
  • building block for larger molecules.
  • intermediates in reactions
  • constituent of nucleotides.
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31
Q

What is a disaccharide?

A

And dimer. Two monosaccharides bonded together with the elimination of water and has a glycosidic bond.

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32
Q

What is the biological role and component monosaccharide of maltose?

A

Glucose + glucose

In germinating seeds

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33
Q

What is the biological role and component monosaccharide of sucrose?

A

Glucose + fructose

Transport in phloem of flowering plants.

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34
Q

What is the biological role and component monosaccharide of lactose?

A

Glucose+ galactose

In mammalian milk

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35
Q

How do you test for the presence of reducing sugars?

A

-Benedicts test for reducing sugars.
-equal volume of benedicts reagent and testing solution heated to 80’C
- If present the solution turns from blue to BRICK RED
(Because the sugars donate an electron to reduce copper ll ions in copper sulphate to red l oxide)
-THIS WONT WORK FOR NON-REDUCING SUGARS

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36
Q

How do you test for non-reducing sugars?

A
  • heat the sample with hydrochloride acid at 80’C
  • add alkali like sodium hydroxide
  • add benedicts reagent and heated as before.
  • if turns red, a non reducing sugar is present.
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37
Q

What is a polysaccharide?

A

A complex polymer made up of monomers linked by glycosidic bonds.

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38
Q

What is the main source of energy in cells?

A

Glucose

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39
Q

Why can’t glucose be stored in cells?

A

Because it is soluble in water so it would increase the cells concentration consequently drawing in water by osmosis.
This is avoided by converting glucose into starch.

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40
Q

Where are starch grains found in high concentrations in plants?

A
  • Seeds
  • storage organs
  • starch grains
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41
Q

What is starch comprised of?

A

Amylose and amylopectin

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42
Q

What is the monomer for starch?

A

Alpha- glucose

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43
Q

What is the structure of amylose?

A
  • linear
  • unbranched
  • 1-4 glycosidic bond
  • helix shape
  • chains of alpha glucose
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44
Q

What is the structure of amylopectin?

A
  • chains of alpha glucose
  • 1-4 glycosidic bonds
  • 1-6 glycosidic bonds =branches
45
Q

What is the test for starch?

A
  • iodine solution reacts with starch when mixed.

- colour change from orange/brown to blue/black.

46
Q

What is the main storage product in animals?

A

Glycogen

47
Q

What is the structure of glycogen?

A

1-4 and 1-6 alpha bonds, but has more 1-4 bonds than amylopectin so is a more branched than amylopectin.

48
Q

Where can cellulose be found?

A

A plant cell wall as it is a structural polysaccharide.

49
Q

What is the structure of cellulose?

A
  • long parallel chains of beta-glucose.
  • b-glucose monomers joined by 1-4 glycosidic bonds.
  • every other b-glucose is upside down to form a bond with the one next to it. This allows hydrogen bonds to form between OH group in an adjacent chain=structural stability.
50
Q

Describe a microfibril.

A

Cellulose molecules/chains become tightly cross linked. These microfibrils are held together in bundles called fibres.

51
Q

What makes the plant cell wall so strong?

A
  • laminated structure

- cell fibres run adjacent to each other.

52
Q

What makes cellulose fibres freely permeable?

A

Spaces between fibres so water and it’s diluted can penetrate through the cell wall to the cell membrane.

53
Q

Where can chitin be found?

A

The exoskeleton of insects and fungal cell walls.

54
Q

What is the structure of chitin?

A
  • long chains of a 1-4 glycosidic bonds.
  • additional amino acid
  • strong, waterproof and lightweight.
  • hydrogen bonds form between chains to make microfibrils.
55
Q

What elements are in lipids?

A

-Hydrogen
-carbon
-oxygen
=like carbohydrates but much less oxygen

56
Q

What makes lipids insoluble?

A

They are non-polar compounds.

But they do dissolve in organic solvents like alcohols.

57
Q

What is a triglyceride comprised of?

A

1 glycerol : 3 fatty acids.

The glycerol is always the same but the fatty acid combination can change.

58
Q

What reaction joins fatty acids to glycerol?

A

Condensation, where 3 water molecules are removed and and Ester bond is formed between glycerol and fatty acid.

59
Q

What bond form in a triglyceride?

A

Ester bond.

60
Q

What reaction separates a triglyceride into a glycerol and 3 fatty acids?

A

Hydrolysis.

61
Q

Describe the structure of a phospholipid.

A
  • hydrophilic polar head= phosphate
  • glycerol back bone
  • hydrophobic non-polar tail= 2 fatty acids.
62
Q

Describe a wax.

A

Waxes are lipids that melt above 45’C. They have a waterproofing role in animals (insect exoskeleton) and plants (leaf cuticle)

63
Q

What is the difference between fats and oils?

A
  • Fats are solid at Troon temperature / oils are liquid

- fats are saturated/ oils unsaturated

64
Q

What makes a fatty acid saturated and why?

A

There are only single bonds between carbon atoms, so they are bonded to their full capacity. This makes the chain straight.

65
Q

What type of fat is typically animal fats?

A

Saturated.

As they are semi solid at Troon temperature they are useful for storage.

66
Q

What is the structure of an Unsaturated fat?

A

There is one or more double bond between the carbon atoms cause if the chain to bend.

67
Q

Why are unsaturated fats typically liquid at room temperature?

A

Due to the double bond, the molecules can not align uniformly so it cannot solidify, meaning they are liquid at room temperature.

68
Q

What type of fat is typically liquid at room temperature?

A

Plant lipids.

Like sunflower oil and olive oil.

69
Q

What is the difference between mono-unsaturated fat and poly unsaturated fat?

A
  • Mono unsaturated= one C-C double bond.

- polyunsaturated = many C-C double bonds.

70
Q

What are the roles of phospholipids?

A
  • comprises biological membranes

- electrical insulation

71
Q

What is the role of triglycerides?

A
  • energy reserves in big plants and animals as it contains mor me C-H bonds than carbohydrates.
  • thermal insulation, when stored under the skin.
  • protection against physical damage around the vital organs.
  • metabolic water, released during chemical reactions in the body
72
Q

What is the role of waxes?

A
  • waterproofing to reduce water loss, found in the exoskeleton of insects and cuticle of plants.
73
Q

What is the test for fats and oils?

A

Emulsion test:

  • sample is mixed with absolute ethanol (which dissolves any lipid present)
  • shake this with an equal volume of water
  • dissolves lipids should come out of the solution as they are insolvable in water.
  • an emulsion is formed if lipids present presenting a cloudy white colour.
74
Q

What does LDL stand for?

A

Low density lipoprotein

75
Q

What does HDL stand for?

A

High density lipoprotein

76
Q

What are the two main causes of heart diseases?

A
  • atherosclerosis (fatty deposits in the coronary arteries)

- hypertension (high blood pressure)

77
Q

What are the factors contributing to heart diseases?

A
  • age
  • high saturated fat diet
  • smoking
  • lack of exercise
78
Q

How are lipoproteins made in the body?

A

Food absorbed in the small intestine, lipids and proteins combine to make lipoproteins which travel around the body in the blood stream.

79
Q

What happens if the diet is high in saturated fats?

A
  • LDL cholesterol builds up.
  • atheroma (fatty material) gets deposited on the coronary arteries.
  • blood flow is therefore restricted.
  • therefore less oxygen to the heart
  • it is possible the whole artery can become blocked leading to a heart attack.
80
Q

What happens if your dies is high in unsaturated fats?

A
  • the body makes more HDL cholesterol which lowers the LDL.
  • the HDL carries harmful fats alway for disposal in the liver.
  • the higher the ration of HDL:LDL in a persons blood the Lower the risk of a cardiovascular and coronary heart disease.
81
Q

What elements make up proteins?

A

Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen.

Some may also contain sulphur and phosphorous.

82
Q

What is the monomer for proteins?

A

Amino acids

83
Q

How many different amino acids are there?

A

20

84
Q

What is a chain of amino acids called?

A

Polypeptide

85
Q

What determines a protein and their shape?

A

The sequence of amino acids.

86
Q

What is the structure of an amino acid?

A
  • amino group = NH2
  • carboxyl group = COOH
  • carbon atom bonded to a hydrogen and a R group (R group is different for each amino acid)
87
Q

What is a protein?

A

A linear sequence of amino acids.

88
Q

Describe what happens during the condensation reaction to make a dipeptide

A
  • Amino group of one amino acid reacts with the carboxyl group of another amino acid.
  • water is eliminated.
  • peptide bind is formed.
  • this resulted in a dipeptide.
89
Q

Between which molecules does a dipeptide bond form in a protein?

A

Carbon and nitrogen.

90
Q

What are the four protein structure stages?

A
  • Primary
  • secondary
  • tertiary
  • quaternary
91
Q

Describe the primary protein structure.

A

The type, number and sequence of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.

92
Q

Describe the secondary protein structure.

A
  • this is the shape the polypeptide forms as a result of hydrogen bonding.
  • alpha-helix forms a spiral
  • beta-pleated sheets
  • hydrogen bonds between N-H and O=C
93
Q

Describe the tertiary structure of a protein.

A
  • further folding of secondary structure due to more hydrogen bonds and other bonds
  • other bonds like- ionic, disulphide, hydrophobic.
  • bonds help to maintain a 3D shape.
  • if heated the protein will denature.
94
Q

What is an example of a protein with an alpha helix shape?

A

Keratin

95
Q

What is an example of a protein with a beta pleated sheet?

A

Silk

96
Q

Describe the quaternary protein structure.

A
  • more than one polypeptide chain courses together.
  • 3D
  • same bonds as tertiary
  • eg= haemoglobin.
97
Q

Describe a fibrous protein.

A
  • long thing molecules
  • shape makes them insoluble in water
  • structural functions as bone
  • polypeptides are in chains with many cross linkages, to form long fibres
  • alpha he lives linked into chains
98
Q

What are examples of fibrous protein?

A

Collagen and keratin.

99
Q

Describe a globular protein.

A
  • rounded and compact

- water soluble meaning they have many functions.

100
Q

Give examples of globular proteins.

A

Enzymes, hormones, haemoglobin, antibodies.

101
Q

What is the test for proteins and how would you test for it?

A

The biuret test:

  • test a sample of solution for protein, a few drops of biuret reagent.
  • the sodium hydroxide and copper sulphate react to make blue copper hydroxide, which react with the peptide bonds which is purple.
102
Q

What is the bond linking two amino acids?

A

Peptide bonds

103
Q

What is a long chain of monosaccharide molecule joined by a glycosidic bond?

A

Polysaccharide

104
Q

What chemical element is present in proteins and NOT carbohydrates?

A

Nitrogen/ sulphur.

105
Q

Which protein carries oxygen in red blood cells?

A

Haemoglobin.

106
Q

Which part of the amino acid is different in each of the 20 amino acids?

A

R-group

107
Q

What types of bonds are present in tertiary protein?

A
  • ionic
  • hydrogen
  • disulphide
  • hydrophobic
108
Q

What is the first product of starch digestion which is later broken down into glucose by maltase?

A

Maltose

A-level Biology (13 decks)

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