BIOL 1406 Final Review Flashcards
What does science study?
Science is the study of observable, measurable, and testable events.
What doesn’t science study?
Beliefs excepted by Faith
What is the procedure called that is used by scientist inquire knowledge
Scientific method
Describe the steps of the scientific method
Observe and accumulate data, form a hypothesis, experiment, ad mass new data, assess results
Define hypothesis
An educated guess, a if/then statement.
What is biology?
A branch of science, that studies living organisms
Why is evolution considered a unifying theme in biology?
It proposes that organisms sin with modification from Pre existing. That species can change through natural selection, and new species can emerge
Define matter
Anything that occupies space, and are comprised of matter
Define element
The building blocks of matter
Define atom
The smallest particles that retain the properties of the element
How many elements occur naturally?
84 to 94. 92 are the most common.
What is the periodic table and who first developed it?
The periodic table is a chart that arranges elements based on chemical properties. this was developed by Dimitri Mendeleev.
What does the atomic number of an element equal?
The atomic number of a element equals the number of protons that is in its nucleus
What is an isotope? What special physical property does exhibit?
And isotope or atoms with varying numbers of neutrons, the special physical property that they exhibit is radioactivity
What are examples of isotope?
C12,C13,C14
What is the charge of an electron?
Electrons inhabit a negative charge
how does it compare in mass to a proton?
similar mass
What is the valance shell of an atom?
The valance shell is the outer shell.
If the valence shell does not contain its maximum number of electrons, then how many electrons does the atoms seek to accept?
Negative 8E
What is the term used to describe an atom that is caring electric charge?
ion
Most atoms do not have a full balance show. Therefore, most atoms have the ability to join with others.(A) when at least two atoms have joined together. What is the result called? (B) when Atoms form at least two different elements have joined together. What is this called?
A. Molecules
B. Compound.
Identify examples of a molecular formula
H2O and CO2
Identify an example of structural formula
O = C = O,
H-O-H
Describe a covalent bond
Covalent bonds are strong. They share electrons to fill the valence shell.
What is meant by the term nonpolar covalent bond?
Nonpolar covalent bonds, or if electrons are equally shared
What is meant by the term polar covalent bond
Polar covalent bond electrons are unequally shared
Describe hydrogen bonds
Stabilizes large molecules, they are weak bonds
Define PH
Negative algorithm of the concentration of hydrogen plus ions in a solution
What pH values indicate acidity
Less than seven
What classifies the substance as a base?
Release hydroxyl ion in a solution
What pH values indicate alkaline
More than seven
What classifies a substance as a salt
That it can break down into ions other than H plus and OH
Genuinely organic compounds contain atoms of what element
carbon
Describe five characteristics of water
Universal solvent, forms bound water, exhibit cohesion, exhibits, capillarity, expands rather than contraction freezes
What is the universal solvent and what does the term
The universal solvent is water, and it means that more substances can be iodized in the water than any other substance
What percent of the atmosphere is CO2
.04%. This percentage is steadily rising overtime.
What is meant by the term greenhouse effects
Major contributing, greenhouse, gas to global warming. CO2 trapped, excessive heat and melt polar ice.
What percent of atmosphere is oxygen? What organisms are responsible for the production of most of atmospheric oxygen?
The percent of the atmosphere that is oxygen is 21% and we get most of this oxygen from algae
What is a isomer
Organic compounds with the same molecular formula but different
What occurs in a condensation/dehydration reaction?
Loss of one water molecule
What occurs during hydrolysis
Force cut with water, adds water to break bond of polymers
What is the only type of carbohydrate small enough to enter the cell?
Monosaccharide
List the names of 3 kinds of disaccharide
Sacrose, Maltose, Lactose
Why are lipids important to the cell?
Fuel reserve- 2.5 X more potential energy than sugar in The chemical bonds of fat
Insulation-protection against the cold
Organ protection, especially for eyeballs and kidneys
Forms Cell membrane
What are monomers of simple fats
Glycerol and two fatty acids
What are the monomers of protein?
Amino acids
How many amino acids are utilized by living organisms
20
Specifically, what subunits of amino acid combine with each other in condensation reaction to form a peptide bond
COOH & NH3
Who improved the microscope and is considered the father of microscopy
Anton von Leeuwenhoek
Who first describes the cell and what type of cells did he study?
Robert Hooke and he studied cork cells
What role did Matthias schleiden play in the development of cell theory
Botanist- all plants made of cells
What role did Theodor Schwann play in the development of cell theory?
zoologist- all animals made of cells
What role did Rudolf virchow play in the development of cell theory?
proposed that all cells arise from pre-existing cells
What role did louis Pasteur play in the development of cell theory
proved Virchow’s theory that all cells come from pre-existing cells
Describe the swan neck flask experiment and what theory did it prove
This one neck experiment is an experiment that contains two swan bottles, both containing a boiled broth like substance, where one of the neck of the bottles is broken, leaving it to be exposed to the air. The help to prove that all existing cells come from pre-existing.
What is the light source in magnification range of the compound light?
A compound light is the type of microscope using the lab and it has incandescent light source
1000X magnification
What is the light source in the magnification rain range for the TEM
Electron microscope
Uses electrons to produce an image and its magnification range is 100,000 X to 300,000 X
What is the light source in the magnification range for scanning EM (SEM) microscopes?
Takes a three-dimensional view of its specimens
Magnification range 5,000 X
Define cytoplasm
Gel that contains all the contents of the cell excluding the nucleus
Define protoplasm
Gel that contains all the contents of the cell including the nucleus
Define organelle
Little organs; structures in the cytoplasm that carry out the functions of the cel
Describe the prokaryotic cell and give examples
Before nucleus
Cells do not have a true nucleus
Examples, bacteria and blue green algae
Describe the eukaryotic cell and give examples
True nucleus
These cells contain a true nucleus
Examples, most organisms on the plant
What is the largest organelle in the cell?
The nucleus
What type of RNA is manufactured in the area of the nucleolus
RRNA
Nucleus is actively manufacturing it and attaching proteins to Ribsomal subunits
Who discovered the ER?
Discovered by Keith Portler
Describe the rough ER
A system of bilayer and folded membranes
lumen- hollow cavity
cistemae- membrane disk
Covered in ribosomes that make proteins
What organelle is associated with the rough ER
ribosomes
What are the functions of the rough ER?
proteins enter for folding, quailty control, and exporting from the cell
Describe the smooth ER
Lacks ribsomes, and is more tubular in appearance
What does smooth ER perform in the liver
detoxifles harmful molecules
What organelle is the site of protein synthesis?
Ribosomes
Where are most ribosomes located?
Most ribosomes are located on the rough ER
Who discovered the Golgi apparatus
Camillo golgi
What are the primary functions of the Golgi apparatus?
stores modifies, and packages secretary products
directs exocytosis or movement of large molecules out of the cell
packing and shipping of the cell
attaches sugar to proteins and lipids to form the glycolipids and glycoproteins
What is the primary job of the lysosomes
fuse with membrane-bound particles and break them into smaller components
digest worn-out organelles for recycling - autophagy
Which organelle is involved in with cellular respiration or the production of ATP (motor of the cell)
mitochondrion
What is the function of the vacuole in plant cell and what happens to the size of the vacuole as plant cell matures
water reservoir for photosynthesis
the vacuole increases in size as the plant cell matures
stores cell sap of plants which is primary water, some dissolved proteins, and sugars
What is cell sap made out of and what color pigments are dissolved in the vacuole of plants
water and some dissolved proteins and sugars.
What type of plastid stores chlorophyll and is the site of photosynthesis
chloroplast
What environmental conditions have to be met for this phenomenon to begin
cooler temperatures
shortening of daylight hours- light photo periods
How many layers form the plasma membrane and what is it made of
made of a bilayer of phospholipids and protein
What type of organisms have a cell wall
plants, fungi, bacterica
What is the purpose of the cytoskeleton
support, organization, movement
What are mircotubules and what do they form during mitosis
proteins
forms cilla, flagella, centrioles, spinde fibers
Which cell adhesion works like a snap and is common is tissue subjected to mechanical stress
spot desmosomes
define diffusion
the random movement of molecules from an area of high contradion, to an area to low concentration. creases when an equilibrium has reached
define osmosis
movement of a solvent through a selectively permeable
describe what happens to a cell in an isotonic solution
has the same concentration of particles as the interior of the cell
retain normal shape
describe what happens to a cell in an hypotonic solution
has a lower concentration of particles than the interior of the cell
“puffy, bigger”
water moves into the cell because the concentration of the water is high outside the cell and low inside the cell
describe what happens to a cell in an hypertonic solution
has a higher concentration of particles than the interior of the cell
“shriek, or small” cerate cells
cell lose water because the h2o concentration is less outside the cell & h20 moves from high to low
what is the currently accepted model of the plasma membrane called and what two scientists proposed it?
the fluid mosaic model, the two scientists who proposed it are singer and Nicholison
what steroid is found in the plasma membrane of higher animal cells
Cholesterol
what is the function of the adhesion proteins of the plasma membrane and what do they form
the attachment of cells to one another.
forms cell junctions–tights, gap, and spot desmosomes
what is the function of enzyme proteins
Catalyzes or speeds up reactions without being charged
they can’t be destroyed
what is the receptor site proteins
bind to a particular substance outside of the cell, such as a hormone.
binging triggers a change in the cells activities
what is the function of the recognition proteins? what is a sugar tag and what forms it?
forms unique tags for each individual or species
the tags are usually chains of sugars added to the protein in the Golgi apparatus; called a sugar tag
identifies molecules, cells, etc
helps white blood cells recognize foreign bodies for destruction
describe the action of the active transport protein and give an example of it
moves ions against the gradient, or from low to high concentrations
ex. sodium-potassium pump
what is HYPP? its effect on horses? the genotypes?
hyperkalemic periodic paralysis
a genetic disorder that leads to the malformation of Na(sodium) channels in muscle tissue
produces abnormal muscle, even sudden death
3 genotypes- NN, NH, NN
define endocytosis
into the cell
define exocytosis
out of the cell
describe phagocytosis
moves large particles into membrane-bound vacuoles
describe pinocytosis
moves liquids into the cell
describe receptor-mediated endocytosis
surface attracts and bind to molecules such as a hormone, vitamin, or mineral
what organelle directs exocytosis
Golgi apparatus
Explain how the laws of thermodynamics applied to cellular respiration
the first law staes that energy can be convented but cannot be destoryed. the second law states that no energy conversion is 100.
What is the universal compound that supplies energy needed for cells
ATP
Define potential energy
free energy, energy available to do work
Define kinetic energy
energy at work
Define endergonic reactions
energy in, forms bonds
Define exergonic reactions
break the bonds, free energy out
Define catalyst
large polypeptides that speed up chemical reactions. they are not used up, destroyed, or permanently changed
What is the energy of activation in a chemical reaction? What supplies this energy in the lab or in the cell?
molecules frequently don’t reach each other and have to add energy to them to cause a reaction. in the lab, energy is added with heat. in the cell, enzymes supply the energy of activation
What is a substrate?
the reactants acted upon by the enzyme
Referring to enzymatic actions what are synthesis reactions
an enzyme joins substrates
Again, referring to enzymatic reactions what is degradation reaction
an enzyme breaks apart substrates
What kind of bond holds the substrate in place on the activation site of the enzyme?
van der waal bond
What scientific project map the 23 pairs of human chromosomes
project genome
What type of inorganic compounds are cofactors and what are their function?
minerals, assist an enzyme in forming products
What are redox reactions?
If a substance loses electrons it is said to be oxidized. if subtance gains electrons its is said to be reduced
Which redox reaction loses electrons
oxidation
Which redox reaction gains electrons
reduction
What does OILRIG stand for
oxidation is losing; reduction is gaining
What are the three types of phosphorylation?
substrate phosphorylation, oxidative phosphorylation, photophosphorylation
Which type of phosphorylation is associated with glycolysis in the Krebs cycle with etc with photosynthesis
substrate phosporylation
List the three phrases of respiration and where each occurs
glycolysis-occurs in the cytoplasm
krebs- occurs in the inner compartment of the mitochondrion
electron transport chain- occurs on the cristae of the mitochondrion
What is nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide=bus
NAD
What is NADH+H
hydrogen bus
What is phosphorylation
adding an phosphate group
Which phase of respiration is anaerobic
glycolgsis
What vitamin is NAD produced from
B vitamin niacin
What triggers fermentation occur in the cell
insufficient O2
The muscle cell has stalled in glycolysis and formed a little ATP to continue working however, what 3C waste is produced
lactic acid
How does alcohol fermentation differ from lactic acid fermentation?
the results are different
What is the function of pre-krebs
to prepare for the Krebs cycle
What are the net results of pre-krebs
2 2C Acetyl for krebs
2 molecules of CO2
2 NADH+H hydrogen buses for ETC
What is 6c Citrate
2C actate unties 4c oxloacetate
What is the first compound produced krebs cycle? How many carbon atoms does it contain?
6c citrate, 6 carbons
So how many times does the Krebs cycle turn for each molecule glucose that goes to respiration?
2 times
What part of the hydrogen ion travels down the ETC gradient
H- Electrons
What part of the hydrogen ion is pumped into the outer compartment of the mitochondria
H+ Proteins
how many spins of the ATP synthase does a high engry bus produce
3 times, making 3 ATP
how many spins of the ATP Synthase does a low enegry bus produce
2 times, making 2 ATP
what is chemiosmosis
the process of the hygren down the gradient
What are the differences between DNA and RNA
DNA
double helix
5c sugar- deoxyribose
Base: adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Thymine
RNA
Single Helix
5c sugar- ribose
bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil
What is the structure of DNA molecule called?
Deoxyribonucleic acid
What did johann Miescher contribute to the knowledge of DNA?
discovered in 1868 in pus from war bandages and in fish sperm. called it “nuclein”
What did Robert Fuelgen contribute to the knowledge of DNA
1914 devloped a stain for nuclein; stains chromatin red
What did Fredrick Griffith contribute to the knowledge of DNA?
1928 worked with streptococcus pneumonia bacteria. Hypothesized that DNA was pathogenic- disease cause
What did Oswald Avery contribute to the knowledge of DNA?
1944 used enzymes to destroy proteins and then DNA in bacteria.
Concluded that hereditary material was probably made of DNA and not protein
What did Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase contribute to the knowledge of DNA?
Confirmed Avery conclusion. Proved that the genes were made of DNA, not protein
What did Erwin Chargaff contribute to the knowledge of DNA?
1949 worked on DNA composition in USA
Concluded that a always equaled t and g= c
Also concluded that different species had different numbers of nucleotides, because they have different amounts of DNA nucleotide
What did Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin contribute to the knowledge of DNA
Both worked on the DNA structure
Franklin made the best x-ray diffraction of crystalline DNA, and worked out the dimensions of the molecule
What did Watson and Crick contribute to the knowledge of DNA?
Bulit model of DNA in 1953
Used info of Franklin
Which subunits are the same in the nucleotides? Different?
3 subunits, the phosphate group and pentose sugar are same while nitrogen bases will be different
What are the 2 purines? Describe them
Large, 2 carbon rings
Guanine
Adenine
What are the 2 pyrimidines? Describe them
Small, 1 carbon ring
Cytosine
Thymine
What scientist discovered the first enzyme associated with DNA Replication?
Arther kornberg, DNA Polymerase l
What scientists proved that DNA replication was semi conservative?
Matthew meselson and Franklin stahl
What does semi conservative replication mean?
Semiconservatie- one strand of DNA is made is made of original nucleotides and the complimentary strand of DNA is made of new nucleotides
What is the function of helicase associated with DNA replication
Unwinds the double helix, creating a fork
What is the function of polymerase lll associated with DNA replication
Add nucleotides to the leading strand- 5’3’ continuously
What is the function of DNA polymerase l associated with DNA replication
Adds nucleotides in short sections called Okazaki fragments
What is the function of ligase associated with DNA replication
Puts fragments together
What is the function of “proof reading” enzymes associated with DNA replication
Proofing reading the nucleotides. 1 mistake/ 100,000,000 nucleotides
What are the Okazaki fragments
The new DNA Strand forms in short fragments
Which strand is the “leading” strand and is replicated continuously in DNA
5,3
Which strand is the “lagging” strand and is replicated in fragments
3,5
When does DNA replication occur
Occurs in interphase, just before prophase in mitosis
The theory of Enosymbiosis suggests that mitochondria and chlochloroplasts once lived lives as independent organisms. What do these organelles possess that makes them different from other organelles?
The ability to replicate
What type of rna is a complete copy or transcript of the DNA gene
MRNA
What type of RNA carries amino acids from the cytoplasmic pool to the ribosome
tRNA
What type of RNA combines with proteins to form the subunits of the ribosome
rRNA
Which phase of protein synthesis occurs firsts?
Transcription
Which strand of DNA is transcribed?
3’5’ strand
What removes the introns of the primary transcript
SnRPS - small Nuclear Ribonucleoprotein particles
Where does the second phase of protein synthesis occur
Translation
What are polysomes
Many ribosome that attach to the mRNA and each translates the same strand of mRNA.
Who is Gregor mendel
Father of genetics studied hybridization crossing of peas
Define genes
Inheritable unit of information in DNA occupies a particular location on the chromosome
Define homologous chromosomes
One of a pair of chromosomes in body cells of diploid organism, except for not identical, sex chromosome
Define alleles
One of two or more forms of a gene; alleles arise by mutation and encode slightly different versions of the same gene product
Define dominant
With regard to an allele, having the ability to mask the effects of recessive allele
Define recessive
With regard to an allele, having effects that re masked by a dominant allele on the homologous chromosome
Define genotype
The particular alleles carried by an individual
Define phenotype
An individuals observable traits
Define phenotype and genotype ratio if both parents are hybrid for 1 gene
It will be 3:1 and 1:2:1
Define Co dominance
Non identical alleles that are both fully expressed in heterozygosities, nether dominant or recessive
Define sex linked disorders
Gene is carried only on the X chromosome
Define XX
B6 chromosome for human females
Define XY
The sex chromosome for human males
Define monohybrid cross
Genetic problems, dealing with the inheritance of only one characteristic
Define punnet square
The device used in genetic problem-solving to determine F1 generation
Define F1
The first generation of offspring from a set of parents
What do restriction enzyme do
They cut the plasma, DNA at certain points
What does GMO Stand for
Genetically modified organisms
What is PCR technology used for
To make fast copies of DNA
Who is Katy mullis
Worked for a corporation which sold the patent for a PCR for 300 million. Devote the process of PCR.
