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Zoology > Biodiversity, Ecology and Conservation > Flashcards

Biodiversity, Ecology and Conservation Flashcards

1
Q

Definition of ecology

A

Interaction between organisms (biotic) and their environment (biotic and abiotic)

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2
Q

Definition of biological species

A

Two organisms which cannot breed to produce viable, fertile offspring

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3
Q

Definition of population

A

A group of individuals of 1 species living and interacting in one area at a given time

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4
Q

Definition of community

A

Associations of populations of 2 or more different species in the same area

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5
Q

Definition of ecosystems

A

Community and physical environment and the transfer between different trophic levels in the whole environment

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6
Q

Definition of landscapes

A

Areas with considerable differences e.g. multiple ecosystems

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7
Q

Definition of biosphere

A

All the world’s ecosystems i.e. all living organisms and their environment

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8
Q

Definition of assemblages

A

A group of similar animals e.g. an assemblage of birds

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9
Q

Definition of population dynamics

A

How population size varies through time

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10
Q

Basic population equation and what it is used to calculate

A

Nt+1 = Nt + B - D + I - E

To calculate population size for animals with annual breeding cycles

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11
Q

Definition of geometric growth

A

Species population changes in size by a constant proportion in discrete time steps

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12
Q

Definition of exponential growth

A

Species population with continuous reproduction changes in size by a constant proportion at each instant in time

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13
Q

When does unlimited population growth occur?

A
  • no competition and unlimited resources
  • in small populations
  • Newly colonised regions
  • e.g. Muskox, Alaska
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14
Q

Important population measures

A
  1. Population size i.e. number of individuals

2. Population density i.e. number of individuals/ area or vol

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15
Q

What are area-based counts

A

Count sessile individuals or vegetation using quadrats or aerial surveys for large mammals in a known area

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16
Q

What are distance-based counts

A

Measure distances individuals seen from a transect line/ point to estimate relative number of individuals/ unit area

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17
Q

Definition of relative population size

A

Number of individuals in time/ place relative to a number in another

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18
Q

Methods used to measure population sizes

A
  1. Area-based counts
  2. Distance-based counts
  3. Capture, mark, release, recapture
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19
Q

Capture, mark, release, recapture equation to estimate population size

A 
Total population (N) = (Number marked first catch (M) x total caught second catch (C) / number marked second catch (R)
N = (M x C)/R
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20
Q

Assumptions and issues with capture, mark, release, recapture

A
  1. No B, D, I or E between M and R i.e. equal chance of capture
  2. No harm during process
  3. Marks do not fade
  4. Overestimate if animals learn to avoid recapture
  5. Underestimate if animals get preferentially caught
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21
Q

Definition of intraspecific competition

A

Competition within members of the same species as similar resource requirements i.e. demand>supply

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22
Q

Definition of interspecific competition

A

Competition between different species where both suffer negatively

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23
Q

Definition of carrying capacity (K)

A

The upper sustainable limit of a population

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24
Q

Begon et al. (1996) intraspecific comp. characteristics

A
  1. Effect is a measurable reduction in an individual’s contribution to future generations
    e. g. a) fecundity (Cain 2011) - song sparrow breeding pairs and offpsring survival b) survivorship (van Balen 1980) - supplementary feeding and great tit breeding pairs
  2. Resources must be in limited supply
  3. Reciprocity e.g. bird of prey chicks, spadefoot toad phenotypic plasticity
  4. Density dependent e.g. Tribolium confusum, soybean survivorship
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25
Q

Population growth models

A
  1. Exponential growth equation

2. Discrete logistic growth equation

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26
Q

Exponential growth equation

A

Nt+1 = reproductive rate x Nt

Nt = pop. size

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27
Q

Discrete logistic growth equation

A

Represents intraspecific competition
Nt+1 = reproduction rate x Nt (1 - Nt/K)
- calculate N at different time phrases
- plot Nt (y) against time (x) to see population growth

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28
Q

Characteristics of density dependence

A
  • closely linked to intraspecific competition

- regulates population sizes around an optimum K value

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29
Q

Population regulation

A
  1. Regulating equilibrium around K by DD factor regulation (pop. often fluctuates)
  2. DD factors do not regulate if there is a time delay or if it only regulates in certain environmental conditions
  3. Different factors, e.g. food, waste, predation, may cause DD
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30
Q

What is cobwebbing (Ricker-Moran plots), how to use them and features?

A

Graphical method to predict the results of intraspecific competition and show population dynamics
- plot curve represented by the discrete logistic growth equation
- plot straight line to present unchanging population around K
- plot graph N against time
Changes to curve shape can majorly impact population stability and dynamics
Patterns vary i.e. cycles, oscillations, fluctuations

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31
Q

Ricker-Moran plot pattern examples

A
  • Yeast rises smoothly with no fluctuation around K
  • Callosobruchus beetles have a decreasing oscillating pattern
  • Tasmanian sheep show regular fluctuations
  • Great Tits have no order and wide fluctuations
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32
Q

Definition of mutualism

A

Both species benefit i.e. symbiotic e.g. zebra and oxpecker

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33
Q

Definition of commensalism

A

Presence of one species needed for another e.g. crabs and species living in their shells

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34
Q

Definition of predation

A

One species usually kills another

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35
Q

Definition of ammensalism

A

One species has a negative effect on another but it itself is unaffected e.g. elephants walking through vegetation

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36
Q

Types of interspecific competition

A
  1. Exploitation (indirect)

2. Interference (direct)

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37
Q

Definition of competitive exclusion

A

One species may have a competitive advantage over another resulting in one becoming out-competed (exploitation competition) and extinct

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38
Q

Example of competitive exclusion

A
  1. (Park 1948) flour beetles:
    a) abiotic: T. castaneum wins 100% in hot-moist climate whilst T. confusum wins 90% in hot dry
    b) biotic: confusum competitive advantage in presence of parasites
  2. (Tansley) Galium species:
    G. sylvestre outcompetes on limestone and G. saxatile on peat
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39
Q

Definition of niche theory

A

Ultimate distribution unit related to species’ ecological position

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40
Q

Types of niche

A
  1. Fundamental

2. Realised

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41
Q

Definition of niche partitioning

A

Alter and shift niche to reduce overlap and enable co-existence by avoiding/ reducing interspecific competition
e.g. (Gause) grown together P. caudatum ate bacteria on surface and P. bursaria ate settled bacteria

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42
Q

Niche partitioning mechanisms

A
  1. Resource Partitioning

2. Character displacement

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43
Q

Resource Partitioning

A
  • Change niche components
  • Reduce interspecific competition by narrowing niches
  • May increase intraspecific competition
  • e.g. (Schoener) 4 species of Anolis lizard live and eat similar food but height and thickness of perch and time spent in sun/shade differ
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44
Q

Character displacement

A
  • Changing morphologically
  • long term evolutionary response
  • e.g. Hydrobia snails usually 3.5mm but together H. ulvae = 4mm and H. ventrosa = 3mm
  • e.g. Geospiza finch beak size. G. fulignosa smaller than G. fortis
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45
Q

Brown and Davidson (1977) niche partitioning experiment

A
  • exploitative competition between seed-eating ants and rodents
  • ant colonies increase by 70% when rodents removed and rodents increase by 18% when ants removed
  • interspecific competition - remove both seed density increases from 1 to 5.5
  • interference competition - rodents enter ant burrows whilst ants sting rodents
  • resource partitioning between ant species
  • character displacement of ant foraging strategies
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46
Q

What are mortality/ survivorship curves?

A

Graphical representation of survivorship from life tables

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47
Q

Pearl (1928)’s survivorship curve types

A
  1. Low early, high late mortality e.g. humans, mountain sheep
  2. Constant probability e.g. passerines
  3. Very high early mortality but high survivorship if survive e.g. fish, LEDC humans (30% Gambians)
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48
Q

What are cohorts and life tables used for?

A

To study population trends and predict population sizes

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49
Q

Definition of cohort

A

Group of animals born in the same time interval. Track fate from birth to death for population information

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50
Q

Function of life tables

A

Provide information about birth and death patterns and summarise variations in survival and reproductive rates with age

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51
Q

Types of life tables

A
  1. Diagrammatic

2. Cohort

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52
Q

Diagrammatic life tables

A
  • easy to follow
  • harder to analyse and make predictions
  • e.g. Great Tits have overlapping generations so individuals alive at t+1 = range of ages
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53
Q

Cohort life tables

A
  • more reliable
  • for continuously breeding or overlapping generations
  • change in mortality with age/ stage
  • construct fecundity schedules by measuring births at different ages
  • plants, sessile organisms, animals with annual life-cycles
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54
Q

k-values (“killing power”)

A
  • reflect intensity/ mortality rate at each stage relative to the next as sequential mortality factors
  • scaled and standardised
  • sum to show overall mortality
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55
Q

What is the key factor?

A

The most important k factor.

Correlates most closely with k-total and contributes most to overall mortality

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56
Q

What is the regulating factor?

A

k factor which correlates most closely is the main population regulator
Compare k-values with population size by plotting each k value separately against measure of population size over years

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57
Q

Types of life tables

A
  1. Fixed - look at a pop. cohort. Usually simple annual cycles
  2. Static - study whole pop. in a single year. Usually highly mobile/ cryptic species e.g. Red Deer on Isle of Rhum
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58
Q

Lowe 1969 static life table of Red Deer on Isle of Rhum

A
  • reconstructed pop. age structure of 1957
  • smoothed the data
  • survivorship reduced with age
  • High mortality at 8-10 years after high birth rate
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59
Q

Definition of true predators

A

Complete consumption of another species

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60
Q

Definition of parasites

A

Rarely kill host but effects vary. Obligate association with host (co-evolution)
e.g. pathogen, Myxoma virus

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61
Q

Definition of parasitoids

A

Kill host by laying eggs which hatch and eat host from within

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62
Q

Definition of hyperparasitoid

A

Parasitise on another parasite/ parasitoid

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63
Q

Definition of herbivores

A

Eat tissue/ internal fluids of living plants/ algae

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64
Q

Plant defences

A
  1. Chemical
  2. Mechanical
  3. Nutritional
  4. Tolerance
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65
Q

Predator-prey relationships

A
  1. Delayed DD coupled oscillations e.g. hare and lynx
  2. no link/ relationship e.g. woodmice and tawny owl
  3. Prey outbreaks
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66
Q

Hare population cycle

A

Krebs et al. 1995

  • interaction between food and predator
  • remove predator, hares increase x2
  • add food, hares increase x3
  • both, hares increase x10 but density still decline
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67
Q

Definition of monophagous

A

Single prey species/ genera therefore may have coupled oscillations

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68
Q

Definition of oligophagous

A

Few prey types

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69
Q

Definition of polyphagous

A

Many prey species

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70
Q

Evolutionary predator adaptations

A
  1. Physical e.g. speed
  2. Poison
  3. Detoxification/ chemical tolerance
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71
Q

Evolutionary prey adaptations

A
  1. Physical e.g. body forms
  2. Armour
  3. Behaviour
  4. Mimicry
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72
Q

Characteristics of specialist predators

A

Shorter search than handling time

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73
Q

Characteristics of generalist predators

A

Longer search than handling time

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74
Q

Predator switching

A

Predators may become specialist if they show a preference

Efficiency may increase with reliable search images

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75
Q

Ecological impacts of parasites

A
  1. Increase diversity if attack dominant competitor
  2. Reduce distribution range
  3. Near host extinctions
  4. Affect population dynamics
  5. Change physical environment
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76
Q

Community level interactions

A
  1. Direct i.e. between 2 species

2. Indirect i.e. relationship between 2 species is mediated by a 3rd (or more)

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77
Q

Definition of trophic cascade

A

Consumption at one trophic level causes change in abundance composition at lower trophic level and can affect whole ecosystem

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78
Q

Definition of trophic facilitation

A

Direct positive interaction between consumer’s prey and another species which indirectly facilitates the consumer

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79
Q

Definition of competitive hierarchy

A

Linear relationship as no feedback with a dominating species i.e. A -> B -> C

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80
Q

Definition of competitive network

A

Circular relationship between species as every species has a negative impact on another resulting in stability and co-existance as no single species dominates

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81
Q

Definition of keystone species

A

Relatively rare but disproportionally large impact on ecosystem

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82
Q

Definition of ecological dominants

A

Species which have large impacts due to high abundance

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83
Q

Disturbance

A
  • can reduce population sizes so resources become non-limiting affecting species richness
  • varies in intensity and frequency
  • creates gaps allowing colonisation and creates a mosaic community
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84
Q

Intermediate disturbance hypothesis

A

Connell

  • low disturbance/ climax community = low diversity as competitive exclusion via dominant species
  • highest species richness at intermediate levels i.e. mid-succession
  • high disturbance = low species richness as high mortality
  • e.g. Sousa algal communities on rocky shores
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85
Q

Definition of biodiversity

A

The variability among living organisms: within species, between species and of ecosystems

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86
Q

Why conservation science important?

A
  1. Threatened species rising i.e. now 24,307
  2. Varies taxanomically e.g. 64% Cycadopsida threatened
  3. Extinction rates higher than normal background rates e.g. amphibians 66 to 107, 5 mass extinctions
  4. Dominant biodiversity loss drivers vary geographically (Sala)
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87
Q

When did the Anthropocene begin?

A

a) 1610 as CO2 concentrations began to rise

b) 1964 - radioactivity peaks

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88
Q

Biggest threat to mammals

A

Overexploitation with >6000 species affected

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89
Q

What is Conservation Biology?

A
  • Soule 1985
  • address biodiversity and nature issues caused by humans
  • crisis biology i.e. act now, data later
  • intrinsic value of biodiversity i.e. protection for itself
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90
Q

Conservation Biology value statements

A
  1. High organism diversity is good
  2. Extinction is bad
  3. Ecological complexity is good
  4. Evolution and genetic diversity is good
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91
Q

Conservation Biology Tools

A
  1. Singe large or several small (SLOSS), Simberloff and Abele, 1982
  2. Minimum Viable Population (MVP), Schaffer 1981
  3. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), 1975
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92
Q

What is Minimum Viable Population (MVP)?

A

Smallest number of individuals needed for an isolated population to persist at a preferred probability (90-95%) for a predefined time into the future (100 years)

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93
Q

What is CITES?

A
  • international agreement between 183 governments
  • regulates trade
  • 3 appendices covering 5800 animals and 30,000 plants:
    1. Cannot trade unless exceptional circumstances
    2. Regulate trade to prevent worsening already threatened status
    3. Between 2 countries. May be threatened in a particular country but not globally so may want to regulate trade
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94
Q

What is Conservation Science?

A
  • Kareiva and Marvier, 2012
  • coupled human - natural systems
  • maximise benefits for nature and humans
  • systematic data collection
  • CB + human consideration
  • instrumental value of biodiversity i.e. it also helps achieve other things
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95
Q

Conservation Science value statements

A
  1. Human well-being is important
  2. Maximise human and biodiversity benefits
  3. Evidence-based and community involvement
  4. Pristine nature does not exist
  5. Avoid ‘tragedy of the commons’
  6. Local and global conservation linked
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96
Q

How has conservation context changed 1985 vs 2012

A
  1. 40 % human population increase = increased demand
  2. CO2 increase and climate change
  3. More protection e.g. marine <1mil km2 to >8.1 mil
  4. Culture change
  5. Purpose has changed (Mace) i.e. 1960-70 = nature itself whilst now = people + nature
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97
Q

Conservation policies

A
  1. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
  2. Strategic Plan for Biodiversity
  3. 17 Sustainable Development Goals
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98
Q

What is CBD?

A
  • UN policy
  • Following 1992 Rio Earth summit
  • 2010 targets to reduce rate of biodiversity loss not met
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99
Q

What is the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity?

A
  • 2011-2020
  • 5 strategic goals each with 20 targets
  • mostly insufficient/ no progress
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100
Q

What are the Sustainable Development Goals?

A
  • UN
  • broad blueprint for a more sustainable future
  • reviewed annually
  • meet by 2030
  • more research linked
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101
Q

Conservation success examples

A
  1. Southern White Rhino went extinct in 1800s but rediscovered and NT in 2008. Following translocation and restocking now > 20,000
  2. Golden Lion Tamarain went from CE, 1996 to EN, 2003. Translocation and now around 1000 with 1/3 from captive stocks
  3. 68 status improvements
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102
Q

IUCN Databases

A
  1. ECOLEX
  2. Protected Plants
  3. Key Biodiversity Areas
  4. Red List of Ecosystems
  5. Red List of Threatened Species (1964)
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103
Q

IUCN species Red List criteria

A
  1. Population decline measured using counts, demographic data, presence/ absence
  2. Geographic Range Size i.e. spatial distribution in areas of known presence.
  3. Fragmentation
  4. Small Population Size - MVP, extinction vortex
    - extinction risk assessed based either on decline rate over time or just point based
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104
Q

What is Population Viability Analysis (PVA)?

A
  • Gilpin and Soule, 1986
  • determine viability and extinction for particular time and environment
    1. Time-series i.e. use estimates of total number to define average growth trend and variance
    2. Demographic - use estimates of age/ stage specific vital rates
    3. Individual based models and patch- occupancy data
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105
Q

How to measure Geographic Range Size

A
  1. Extent of occurrence - measure within boundary

2. Area of occupancy - sum of how many occupied grids

106
Q

What is the Extinction Vortex?

A
  • Gilpin and Soule, 1986
  • abundance variability increases as population reaches extinction
  • increased rate of population decline nearer extinction
  • small pop = inbreeding/ reduced genetic variability =bottlenecks = low fitness = reduced tolerance
  • e.g. carnivores reduced lifespan and offspring survival and fitness once genetic diversity lost
107
Q

Largest threats to plants

A

Biological resource use i.e. logging

108
Q

Most threatened species

109
Q

Species showing greatest levels of decline

110
Q

Challenges measuring biodiversity

A
  1. Dark Diversity
  2. Sampling Bias - taxa, detection, geography
  3. Numbers described vs predicted
  4. Identifying new indicators
111
Q

What is Dark Diversity?

A
  • Species which should be there but are not
  • Currently absent but could disperse and colonise the area
  • Should prioritise areas with high observed and low dark diversity
112
Q

What are the Aichi Targets?

A
  • 5 strategic goals

- progress markers towards CBD 2020 targets

113
Q

What are Essential Biodiversity Variables (EBV)?

A
  • derived, standardised measurements needed to study, report and manage biodiversity change
  • help provide indicators of progress towards CBD 2020 targets
    1. Genetic composition
    2. Population abundance and distribution
    3. Traits
    4. Community composition
    5. Ecosystem structure and function
114
Q

What is Adaptive Management?

A
  • incorporating research into management
  • systematic planning to test and monitor solutions effectiveness
  • improve and update actions based on results and assessment
  • understand which interventions work and then improve these e.g. Eastern Arc Mountain Tanzania
115
Q

Island Biogeography Theory

A
  • MacArthur and Wilson, 1963
  • Pattern:
    larger and nearer islands have more species
  • Processes:
    a) increase distance = slower immigration rate
    b) smaller size = higher extinction rate as more competition
  • doesn’t consider speciation
  • isolation = selection pressures
  • turnover rate (equilibrium) - calculate k to predict how many species should be present based on rates of immigration and extinction
  • initial high immigration, as more arrive, extinction rate increases
  • useful when considering fragmentation and PA locations
116
Q

Island Biogeography examples

A
  1. Rakata - environmental change changed immigration rate as new ecosystems emerged
  2. Hawaiian Islands
    very isolated chain of islands varying from Kure (15 my) to Hawaii (<700,000y). Climatic and vegetational variation caused speciation.
117
Q

Types of “islands”

A
  1. Oceanic
  2. Land-bridge
  3. Habitat
118
Q

Definition of metapopulation

A

A group of populations occupying different patches but connected by individuals’ movement

119
Q

Metapopulation models

A
  1. Classical
  2. Mainland Island
  3. Patchy
  4. Non- equilibrium
120
Q

What is the classical metapopulation model?

A
  • small extinct-prone populations can be recolonised by neighbours
  • all patches are small
  • migration rate causes persistence
121
Q

What is the mainland island metapopulation model?

A
  • system of patches near a mainland patch

- migration from mainland patch prevents extinction of smaller surrounding patches

122
Q

What is the patchy metapopulation model?

A
  • no risk of extinction as migration between all patches
  • large continuous non-independent metapopulation
  • highly connected patches of different sizes
123
Q

What is the non-equilibrium metapopulation model?

A
  • no exchange

- sub populations = independent separate extinction-prone metapopulations

124
Q

Types of habitat edges

A
  1. Natural e.g .Arabuko Sokoke Forest Kenya

2. Artificial e.g. roads, plantations

125
Q

Definition of countryside biogeography

A

Inclusive of human-induced change and used to create more animal-friendly connections whilst benefiting humans

126
Q

Definition of ecosystem functioning

A

The process species perform within an ecosystem

127
Q

Ecosystem functioning theories

A
  1. Species Redundacy
  2. Rivet-popping hypothesis
  3. Insurance hypothesis
128
Q

What is the species redundancy hypothesis?

A
  • Walker, 1992
  • removing driver species causes a cascade effect
  • removing passenger species causes little change
  • focus on functional groups i.e. low redundancy for continued functioning
129
Q

What is the rivet-popping hypothesis?

A
  • Erhlich and Erhlich, 1981
  • all species contribute to functioning
  • up until a certain threshold, losses are manageable but beyond threshold get catastrophic functional loss
130
Q

What is the insurance hypothesis?

A
  • Yachi and Loreau, 1999
  • increasing biodiversity insures the ecosystem
  • more species = more likely one will succeed and continue to provide a particular function
  • more species = compensation for those that are lost
131
Q

Relationships between ecosystem functioning and species richness

A
  1. Linear i.e. more species = greater functionality
  2. Redundancy i.e. only beneficial if function not already performed and less likely as species increase
  3. Idiosyncratic i.e. no pattern as depends on sequence of additional and removal. Community composition more important than richness
132
Q

Definition of ecosystem resilience

A

The ability of an ecosystem to absorb disturbance without changing to an alternative state where it would lose function and services,

133
Q

Definition of tipping point

A

Threshold at which you can get an alternative state

134
Q

Definition of Protected Areas

A

A defined geographical space which is managed to achieve long term conservation and contribute to people’s wellbeing

135
Q

Definition of Multiple Use Zones (MUZs)

A

Areas surrounding PAs to maintain movement or organisms, nutrients, E etc. but which have managed human activity

136
Q

Definition of ecosystem stability

A

The invariability in function over time

137
Q

Definition of in-situ

A

Protecting endangered species within their natural habitat to conserve ecosystems and recover/ maintain viable populations so biodiversity can maintain itself

138
Q

What are Key Biodiversity Areas?

A

Areas which significantly contribute to biodiversity persistence and species survival

139
Q

Types of Protected Areas

A

Ia. Strict Nature Reserve
III. Natural Monument/ Feature
IV. Habitat/ Species Management
VI. with Sustainable Use

140
Q

Protected Areas Management Effectiveness (PAME)

A

Address human influence and the degree of protection and benefits based on criteria

  • Laurance et al. = 50% reserves have biodiversity erosion and reduction in sensitive functional groups e.g. amphibians
  • Leverington et al. = 40% management deficiencies
141
Q

Usefulness of PAs

A
  1. Protect multiple species simultaneously
  2. Effective and secure
  3. Maintain viability and gene flow
  4. Protection from main drivers
142
Q

Definition of translocation

A

Movement for conservation purposes from one site for release into another to either

  1. Introduce
  2. Reintroduce
  3. Restock
143
Q

Likely to be successful translocation if

A
  1. Native, non-threatened
  2. High habitat quality
  3. Optimum niche away from edge effects
  4. Herbivores
  5. Early breeders
  6. Wild animals
144
Q

Types of Translocation

A
  1. Population restoration

2. Conservation introduction

145
Q

What is population restoration and the types?

A

Translocation within indigenous range

a) Reinforcement - intentional release into an existing population to boost numbers and genetic diversity
b) Reintroduction - intentional release into an indigenous range where it has disappeared

146
Q

What is conservation introduction and the types?

A

Translocation outside indigenous range

a) Assisted colonisation - intentional release to avoid population extinctions e.g .climate change
b) Ecological replacement - intentional release to fill a perceived ecological gap/ function due to extinction

147
Q

Pro conservation introduction arguments

A

Thomas 2011

  • dispersal barriers prevent natural migration to more suitable habitats
  • translocate within same geographic range which lacks endemics
148
Q

Anti conservation introduction arguments

A 
Ricciardi and Simberloff 2009
Vila and Hulme 2011
- well documented negative impacts of invasives
- ecological disturbance risks
- e.g. Nile Perch, American Red Squirrel
149
Q

In-situ management successes

A
  1. Golden Lion Tamarin
    Appendix I, EN as wild pop. = 800. PVA target = 2000. Combination of ex-situ breeding, habitat management i.e. Pocas das Antas reserve, 1974 and reintroduction via translocation of 13 captive, 1983 and 120 wild in 2000
  2. Large Blue Butterfly
    Extinct in UK 1979 as obligate myrmecophile. Habitat management and reintroduction from Sweden, 1983-92 = natural colonisation by 2008
  3. New Zealand’s ground nesting birds. Predator exclusion and eradication and then reintroduction using captive bred individuals
150
Q

Opportunity Costs

A
  • locals dependent on areas now in PAs
  • expensive to compensate e.g. Borneo cost of not planting oil palm = 46-48 $/ t CO2
  • Expensive strategies
151
Q

Definition of ex-situ

A

Protecting endangered organisms outside their natural habitat in a controlled, modified environment

152
Q

Decision criteria to use ex-situ methods

A
  1. in-situ population near MVP
  2. Continued in-situ population decline despite action
  3. Population only lives outside PA
  4. Save EW species
153
Q

Zoo benefits

A
  1. Keep those at risk of extinction alive
  2. Educate
  3. Fund research and projects
  4. Captive breeding and reproductive management
154
Q

Zoo downfalls

A
  1. focus on expensive “charismatic” mega-fauna
  2. Don’t focus on species which would benefit from captive breeding and could be reintroduced into wild
  3. Detract funds from in-situ methods
  4. Limited resources
  5. Husbandry issues i.e. stress behaviours
  6. Domestication and loss of wild behaviours
155
Q

What is the “Ark concept”?

A 
Balmford et al. 2012
- Focus on:
taxa not threatened by permanent habitat loss for successful reintroduction
rapid small low cost breeders
- Consider:
captivity ease
reintroduction feasibility
indigenous species
156
Q

What are EAZA Regional Collection Plans?

A

Developed by Taxon Advisory Groups to determine what should be kept, how and why and determine appropriate management as limited space and resources

157
Q

European Endangered Species Programme (EEP)

A
  • most intense
  • maintain captive genetic diversity
  • info on status of all individuals to determine future management plan
158
Q

European Studbook (ESB)

A
  • medium intensity
  • population analysis based on EAZA data
  • recommend either breeding, transfer or more intense management
159
Q

Monitoring types

A
  • low intensity
    a) MON-P
    b) MON-T
160
Q

ex-situ guidelines

A
  1. Status review in wild
  2. Conservational role
  3. population size needed
  4. resources and expertise
161
Q

Ecological scale

A

level of study i.e. individual vs ecosystem

162
Q

Spatial Scale

A

Processes occur at small or large scales

163
Q

What are general circulation models?

A

Numerical models using coarse i.e. 250-600 km scales to stimulate climate change response but may miss fine details so used alongside regional climate models with smaller dimensions (10-80 km)

164
Q

Temporal Scale

A

Patterns visible at certain time scales may become noise at others

165
Q

What are CCS - Integrated Conservation Strategies?

A

Hannah et al. 2012
Make conservation more effective by taking CC into consideration
1. Model regional biodiversity response
2. Select PAs based on CC and future movement
3. Incorporate corridors and areas outside PAs
4. Coordinate PA management across boundaries
5. Redistribute resources based on greatest CC contributors to greatest sufferers

166
Q

What is climate - vegetation feedback?

A

Responses of ecosystems will in turn alter the climate

167
Q

What is Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+)?

A
  • UN programme in developing countries, 2008
  • financial value for stored C in forests
  • increased payment as emissions reduced
168
Q

Relationships between poverty and the environment

A
  • power, wealth, greed, exogenous and endogenous poverty and poor governance cause environmental degradation
  • environmental degradation can cause poverty
169
Q

What is “land sharing”?

A
  • conservation farming
  • continuous, heterogenous landscape
  • maintain species and resilience
  • humans part of nature
170
Q

What is “land sparing”?

A
  • separate PAs from farms
  • binary landscape
  • nature and agriculture separate
  • humans separate from nature
171
Q

What is the Ecosystem Services for Poverty Alleviation?

A
  • UK led research

- sustainable ecosystem management and poverty decline in developing countries

172
Q

What is the Natural Capital Project?

A
  • US led research

- nature-based solutions

173
Q

What is the Systematics Agenda?

A
  • 2000

- catalogue all species and their distribution and relationships

174
Q

Why are species estimates often uncertain and inconsistent?

A
  • Lack of morphological variation
  • Varied looking effort
  • Varied ease of sampling
175
Q

Value of biodiversity

A
  • Ecosystem services e.g. resilience, regulation, provisions
  • Genetic diversity e.g. wild tomatoes
  • Well-being
  • Use values i.e. direct and indirect
  • Intrinsic non-use values
176
Q

Role of Aristotle

A

384-322 BC

- first to catalogue based on observation and deductive reasoning

177
Q

Role of Theophrastus

A

371-287 BC

  • botany
  • founded first ‘university’: Lyceum of Athens
  • polynomial classification
178
Q

Role of Linnaeus

A

1707-1778

  • binomial nomenclature
  • hierarchy
  • classified 10,000 species
  • classified plants based on flower sexual parts
179
Q

What is the Catalogue of Life?

A

Most comprehensive online global species index database

180
Q

Organism Kingdoms

A
  1. Prokaryotes
  2. Protocista
  3. Fungi
  4. Plantae
  5. Animalia
181
Q

What happened 4.6 bya?

A

ARCHAEAN

Earth formed, no life

182
Q

What happened 3.8 bya?

A

ARCHAEAN

Oceans formed

183
Q

What happened 3.5 bya?

A 
ARCHAEAN
Prokaryotic cells (cyanobacteria in stromatolites) produced O2 via photosynthesis creating simple ecosystems
184
Q

What happened 2 bya?

A

PROTEROZOIC
Ozone protection
Some prokaryotes use aerobic metabolism

185
Q

What happened 1.8 bya?

A

PROTEROZOIC

Single-celled eurkaryotes

186
Q

What happened 1.4 bya?

A

PROTEROZOIC

Multicellular green algae

187
Q

What happened 600 mya?

A

PRECAMBRIAN

Soft-bodied metazoans

188
Q

What happened 530 mya?

A

CAMBRIAN

Cambrian explosion = Burgess Shale fossils

189
Q

What happened 440 mya?

A

SILURIAN
Ecosystem complexity
Complex arthropods
Colonisation of land

190
Q

What happened 330 mya?

A 
CARBONIFEROUS
Vascular plants
Synapsids
Complex ecosystem conditions create niches to support biodiversity
Insects
191
Q

What happened 170 mya?

A

JURASSIC

Reptiles and birds

192
Q

What happened 165 mya?

A

CRETACEOUS

Flowering plants

193
Q

What happened 65 mya?

A

TERTIARY
K/T ME
Bird and mammal (placental) radiation

194
Q

What happened 1.8 mya?

A

QUATERNARY

Modern mammals and humans

195
Q

Species features most threatened from extinction

A
  1. Small populations/ ranges
  2. Live in human favoured habitats
  3. Large organisms
  4. Higher trophic level
196
Q

People who made discoveries about mass extinctions

A
  1. Mary Anning, 1800s - dated fossils of different taxa

2. Cuvier, 1825 - many taxa disappeared simultaneously in Parisian basin

197
Q

Late Ordovician Mass Extinction

A
  • 440 mya
  • rapid cooling causing glaciation and sea level drop
  • anoxic waters
198
Q

Late Devonian Mass Extinction

A
  • 360 mya
  • extraterrestrial impact
  • global cooling
  • rising sea levels causing anoxia
199
Q

Late Permian Mass Extinction

A
  • 250 mya
  • largest with 95% marine and 70% land species lost
  • rising sea levels causing anoxia
  • climate change
200
Q

Late Triassic Mass Extinction

A
  • 210 mya
  • extraterrestrial impact
  • anoxia
  • vulcanism changed climate rapidly
201
Q

KT (Cretaceous - Paleogene) Mass Extinction

A
  • 65 mya
  • 75 % extinct including dinosaurs
  • extraterrestrial impact causing climate change
  • fireball generated smoke and dust reducing light and releasing gases
202
Q

Evidence for extraterrestrial impact of KT ME

A
  • iridium spike in >100 sites globally
  • 180km wide Chicxulub crater, Yucatan
  • Tungska, Siberia 1908 remnant meteorite shock flattened 80 million trees
203
Q

Pleistocene mammal extinctions

A
  • 20 mya in N. America
  • megafauna
  • environmental degradation i.e. glacial retreat and drier vegetation
  • human overkill (Martin)
204
Q

Causes of extinction

A
  1. Climate
  2. Biological
  3. Vulcanism
  4. Impact
205
Q

Volcanic eruptions and extinctions

A
  1. Santorini, 1470 BC
  2. Krakatoa, 1883
  3. Permian
206
Q

Evidence of continental drift

A
  1. Plate tectonics
  2. geological similarities at content edges
  3. floral and faunal similarities
  4. paleomagnetism
207
Q

Effects of plate tectonics

A
  1. Dispersal
  2. Biodiversity
  3. Continental drift
  4. Change climate patterns
208
Q

Plates and environment in Early Devonian

A
  • 380 mya
  • plates separate
  • increase in land plants reduces albedo and increase in photosynthesis changes climate as temperature and CO2 drop
  • fish and coral reef diversification
209
Q

Plates and environment in mid Carboniferous

A
  • 320 mya
  • plates moving together
  • global cooling
  • flora along equator
  • lycopods, calamites, cycads and tree ferns
  • swamps bordered by deserts
210
Q

Plates and environment in late Permian

A
  • 250 mya
  • deserts replace coal swamps
  • mountains in N Africa
  • migration of land vertebrates hindered in Euramerica
211
Q

Plates and environment in Pangea

A
  • 200 mya
  • continents joined
  • uniform fauna
  • N = Laurasia, S = Gondwanaland
  • dinosaurs dominate but mammals radiating
212
Q

When does Gondwana begin to separate from Laurasia?

213
Q

What happens when continents begin to gradually break up?

A
  • migration routes destroyed
  • isolation
  • global climate change
214
Q

Techniques used to link past climate to biodiversity

A
  • Geology
  • Biological
  • Stable isotopes
215
Q

Geology - past climate and biodiversity

A
  • effects of glaciation
  • dates and conditions from rocks
  • glacial and inter-glacial deposits
216
Q

Definition of uniformatarianism

A

Using present conditions to understand the past

217
Q

Biological - past climate and biodiversity

A
  • fossils and species presence/ absence
  • calibrate fossils to estimate temperature
  • carbon dating
  • permafrost
  • peat - pollen grains
218
Q

Definition of permafrost

A

Ground which has been continuously frozen for a minimum for 2 years

219
Q

Definition of palynology

A

Study of pollen grains

220
Q

Stable isotopes - past climate and biodiversity

A
  • Oxygen

- calibrate with marine molluscs

221
Q

Investigating glaciation

A
  • Croll - Milankovitch cycles i.e. strength and location of solar intensity
  • Levels if CO2 and CH4
222
Q

Croll Milankovitch cycles

A
  1. Eccentricity
  2. Obliquity
  3. Precession
    - correlate with glacial cycles
223
Q

What is eccentricity?

A
  • 100,000 year cycle
  • how earth orbits the sun
  • elliptical = contrast between winter and summer
  • circular = constant solar E
224
Q

What is obliquity?

A
  • 41,000 year cycle
  • amount of tilt
  • seasonal change
  • greater tilt increases size of seasonal cycle i.e. more sun in summer and less in winter
225
Q

What is precession?

A
  • 22,000 year cycle
  • axis ‘wobble’
  • direction earth points in relation to a fixed point in space
226
Q

How did the climate at Sheppey change?

A
  1. Tertiary, 65 mya = hot and humid
  2. Eocene, 40 mya = warm temperate
  3. Miocene, 20 mya = modern temperature
227
Q

Pleistocene glaciations

A
  • 2.6 mya - 11,700 ya
  • series of ice ages inter-spaced by interglacial periods
  • every 100,000 years
  • biomes shifts
  • refugia and local extinction during glacial
  • broad vegetation during interglacial
  • intermediate latitudes = greatest genetic diversity
228
Q

Effects of glaciation

A
  • habitat fragmentation
  • allopatric speciation
  • bridges as sea levels drop
  • filters
  • new barriers
  • extinction
  • change soil/ vegetation
  • hybridisation
229
Q

How many biogeographic regions are there?

230
Q

How many biomes and ecoregions?

A

14 biomes

867 ecoregions

231
Q

What are biomes?

A

Similarities based on environmental conditions, structure and habitats

232
Q

How many hotspots?

A

25 terrestrial covering 1.4% land surface

233
Q

What are hotspots?

A

Regions of high endemism and biodiverity but high rate of habitat loss therefore are a conservation priority

234
Q

Faunal changes during the Triassic period (250-200 mya)

A
  • therapsids and reptiles disappeared
  • dinosaurs spread 230 mya
  • monotremes evolved
235
Q

Mammalian evolutionary history

A
  • monotremes evolved in Triassic
  • placentals and marsupials evolved in late Cretaceous (100 mya)
  • radiated globally and diversified after KT ME
  • High endemicity in Australia and S America as isolated during late Miocene (12 mya)
  • 57% terrestrial families endemic
236
Q

Angiosperm evolutionary history

A
  • primitive species in early Cretaceous
  • modern families by 95 mya
  • effective dispersal prior to Pangea breaking up
  • now dominant plant species i.e. 90% with 300,000 species
  • increased CO2 and temperature
237
Q

Angiosperm characteristics

A
  • doubled genome = new features e.g. Flowers
  • drought resistant
  • resistant seed coat prevents desiccation
  • rapid life history and reproduction
  • specialise and adapt rapidly
  • co-evolution with insects
238
Q

Definition of Cosmopolitan taxa

A

Found in all/ most regions e.g. house sparrow

239
Q

Definition of Widespread taxa

A

Common only in suitable habitats in well-defined regions e.g. Cactaceae

240
Q

Definition of disjunct distribution

A

Taxon with 2 or more groups but geographically separated due to migration barriers

241
Q

What are centres of diversity?

A

Areas where conditions favour speciation/ survival

242
Q

What are endemics?

A

Unique to one well defined region as either evolved in one location and stayed and due to fragmentation causing extinction bar one area

243
Q

What are evolutionary relicts?

A

Population/ taxon more widespread in the past e.g. magnolias

244
Q

Plant dispersal success

A
  1. resistant seeds
  2. travel long distances
  3. monoecious and self fertile
  4. aerial dispersal across geographic barriers
  5. vegetative reproduction
  6. primary producers
  7. fungal-resistant seeds
  8. adaptable e.g. invasives
245
Q

Animal dispersal

A
  1. Mobile
  2. need 2 individuals from opposite sex
  3. require certain prey species
  4. parasites and disease
246
Q

Migration

A
  1. Corridors
  2. Barriers
  3. Filters
  4. Bridges
247
Q

Diversity controls

A
  1. Environment i.e. physical structures and resources

2. Competition

248
Q

Plant dominance index

A

Phillip Grime

  • measure of competitive ability
  • aggressive species require lots of resources
  • community change indicator
  • score 1-5, add total and divide by 2 to score /10
  • growth rate, height, spread, litter
  • low scores = high diversity as co existence
  • high dominant species control diversity and are controlled by resource availability
249
Q

Diversity indicies

A
  • diversity index
  • species richness
  • species rank
250
Q

What is diversity index?

A

Measure of number and evenness

251
Q

What is species richness?

A

Number of different species

252
Q

What is species rank?

A
  • most common
  • k-dominance curves i.e. how dominant a species is
  • low slope = dominated by 1 species
  • high slope = quite even
253
Q

Shannon diversity (H) and evenness

A
  • measure number and richness
  • assume random distribution and equal sampling
    H = - SUM(pi ln pi)
  • higher = greater diversity
    E = (H/lnS)
  • higher = more even
254
Q

Simpson Dominance Index (D)

A
  • measure degree of dominance
  • D increases as domiance increases i.e. reduced evenness and diversity
    D = SUM (ni(ni-1))/ (N(N-1))
  • between 0-1. Closer to 1 = more dominance
    1/D shows diversity. i.e. greater value = more diversity
255
Q

Species area relationships

A

S = ca^Z

  • small area = lots of species
  • increasing additional species decreases as area increases
256
Q

Colonisation of Hawaiian islands

A
  1. sea
  2. wind
  3. animals
  4. immigration
257
Q

What is albedo?

A

A measure of a surface’s reflectivity i.e. lower = more radiation absorbed so temperature increases

258
Q

Effects of temperature increase

A
  1. reduced albedo as more snow/ ice lost
  2. asynchrony
    3 phonological changes
  3. spread of disease vectors
259
Q

Future climate predictions

A
  1. greater effects at higher latitudes
  2. desert expansion
  3. more extreme weather events
  4. sea level rise
  5. temperature rise
  6. vegetation shift
260
Q

What are similarity indices?

A

Compare community composition i.e. which species are present

Zoology (5 decks)

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