Bio Unit 2 Flashcards
1
Q
What does DNA carry (3)
A
Hereditary info passed from one generation to the next
Directions for growth, repair and replacement of cells
Information about hair colour, eye colour and proteins
2
Q
Where is it found (2)
A
In all living organisms
Nucleus in every cell
3
Q
What is the structure of DNA?
A
Double helix
4
Q
Why is DNA packed so tightly and what does this packed DNA form.
A
There are a lot of instructions so it needs to be packed small
Form of chromatin
5
Q
If you stretched out your DNA what would it reach
A
Earth to moon
6
Q
What makes a nucleotide
A
A sugar(pentose) + a nitrogen base + phosphate = nucleotide
7
Q
What makes a nucleoside
A
A sugar(pentose) + a nitrogen base = nucleoside
8
Q
Give an example of a macromolecule and what is a macromolecule (3)
A
DNA
A large molecule that is a polymer
A polymer is a molecule made of many repeating units
9
Q
What three chemicals is a nucleotide made of
A
A five carbon sugar
A phosphate group
Nitrogenous base
10
Q
What make up the middle of the ladder (4)
A
Guanine
Adenosine
Cytosine
Thymine
11
Q
What makes up the side of the ladder (2)
A
Sugar
Phosphate groups
12
Q
Which of the nitrogen bases pairs with each other
A
A with T
G with C
13
Q
Who discovered the structure and what were they awarded in what year.
A
James Watson and Francis Crick
Noble Peace Prize in 1962
14
Q
What are genes? (2)
A
- give instruction for spefic protein of characteristic
- genes are made from DNA coiled on top of its self
15
Q
What are chromosomes
A
Super coiled DNA that carry 1000s of genes
16
Q
What are alleles
A
Slightly different forms of the same gene
Ex. Hair colour the alleles may be brown, black, or blonde
17
Q
What is replication
A
Creates two copies of the DNA
18
Q
How many chromosome does each cell contain
A
46
19
Q
Why do cells divide in mitosis (3)
A
Growth
Repair
Replace
20
Q
What does DNA stand for?
A
Deoxyribonucleic acid
21
Q
Define DNA
A
Found in the nucleus it carries all the important instructions that make up you.
22
Q
Define Gene (2)
A
Genes are made up of DNA and they hold all the herititary information to make molecules called protein.
Humans have 20,000-25,000 genes
23
Q
Define chromosomes (2)
A
At thread like structure found in the nucleus that is made up of proteins
They carry genetic info in the form of genes
24
Q
Why is the DNA important in the cell
A
DNA is the blueprint that your cells use to reproduce cells that your body needs.
25
Who is another scientist who contributed to the DNA (3)
She founded the double helix structure of DNA
Found out DNA needs to be hydrated
She died at age 37 of ovarian cancer
26
Name another scientist who contributed and how they did
Thomas Hunt Morgan
| Genes are in fact on chromosomes
27
Review photos of mitosis and meiosis
See Internet
28
What is the significance of meiosis and mitosis
Mitosis: without it you wouldn't be able to replace worn or injured cells and would die
Meiosis: you wouldn't die but you wouldn't be able to have children
29
What is crossing over and what's it's advantage (4)
When chromosomes exchange parts of genetic material
Takes place during meiosis
Creates genetic diversity
Guarantees your not alike any other human
30
Define oogensis (2)
The production or development of an egg in the ovary
| 4 cells 1 turns into an egg and the rest are polar bodies and distigrate
31
Define Spermtogenesis
Four spermatids are made which will eventually become sperm cells and fertilize the eggs
32
Where does mitosis take place
All over the body where new cells are needed
33
Outcome of each process mitosis
| of cells and chromosomes
Same amount of chromosomes as before
1 chromosome in each cell
After cytokinesis 2 cells remain
34
Final product mitosis
| Size and genetic composition
2 smaller cells with the same DNA
35
Number of stages mitosis
6 stages
36
Similarities between mitosis and meiosis
End in cytokinesis
Parent cell is a diploid
Same phases inter phase prophase metaphase anaphase and telophase (meiosis it happens twice)
37
Define diploid
Same number of chromsomes
38
Reason for process mitosis
Growth and to replace worn out cells
39
Reason for process meiosis
Sex cells: to create a egg or sperm to eventually create another human
40
Number of stages meiosis
11 stages
41
Final product meiosis
| Genetic composition and size
4 tiny cells with different genetic info from each parent
42
Outcome of meiosis (2)
| of cells and chromosomes
Four cells are made
| Each cell has a haploid
43
Define haploid
Half a chromosome
44
Where does meiosis take place (2)
Male: testes
Female: ovaries
45
Difference between the two process for meiosis (4)
Results in four daughter cells
Haploid cells result (half the original amount of chromosomes)
Daughter cells are genetically different
Crossing over occurs
46
Difference between the two process for mitosis (4)
Results in 2 daughter cells
Diploid cells result (same amount of chromosomes)
Daughter cells are genetically the same
No crossing over
47
Stages of mitosis
```
Interphase
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Cytokinesis
```
48
Stages of meiosis
```
Interphase
Prophase 1
Metaphase 1
Anaphase 1
Telophase 1
Cytokinesis
Prophase 2
Metaphase 2
Anaphase 2
Telophase 2
Cytokinesis
```
49
Define interphase mitosis (2)
DNA is copied
| Microtubles extend from centrosomes
50
Define prophase mitosis (4)
Chromosomes turn into X-shapes
Pair up with corespondent numbers
Nucleus membrane dissolves
Mitotic spindle fibres extends across cells
51
Define metaphase mitosis (2)
Chromosomes line up at the equator/Center of cell
| Mitotic spindle fibres attach to each chromatid
52
Define anaphase mitosis
Chromatids are pulled apart by the mitotic spindle fibre to opposite sides of the cell
53
Define telophase mitosis (2)
Full sets of chromosomes gather at each end of the cell
| New membrane forms around each set of chromosomes
54
Define cytokinesis mitosis
Single cell pinches in middle and this creates two new cells with a full set of chromosomes
55
Define interphase meiosis (2)
DNA is copied
| Microtubleous extend from centrosomes
56
Define prophase 1 meiosis (5)
Chromosomes turn into X-shapes
Pair up with corresponding numbers
Exchange bits of DNA in process called cross over
Nucleus membrane dissolves
Meiotic spindle fibres extend across cells
57
Define metaphase 1 meiosis (2)
Chromosome pairs line up on equator
| Meiotic spindle fibres attach to each pair of chromosomes
58
Define anaphase 1 meiosis
Meiotic spindle fibres pull each chromosome to either end of the cell
59
Define telophase1 meiosis (3)
Complete move to end of cell
At each end full set of chromosomes gather together
Membrane forms around each new nuclei
60
Define cytokinesis 1 meiosis
Single cell pinches in the middle and creates 2 new cells with full sets of chromosomes in each
61
Define prophase 2 meiosis (5)
```
2 cells with 23 pairs of chromosomes
Chromosome form X-shapes again
Membrane dissolves releasing chromatids
Centrioles duplicate
Meiotic spindle fibres form again
```
62
Define metaphase 2 meiosis (2)
Chromatids line up across the equator of the cell
| Meiotic spindle fibres attach to the chromatids
63
Define anaphase 2 meiosis (2)
Chromatids are pulled to opposite ends of the cell by action of the spindle fibre
Separated chromatids are now individual chromosomes
64
Define telophase 2 meiosis (3)
Chromosomes finish move to opposite side
Each set of chromosomes gather at either end
Membrane forms around around each new set
65
Define chromatid
1 half of the X-shape chromosome
66
Define cytokinesis 2 meiosis
Cells pinch in the middle to create 4 daughter cells
67
When did the study of genetics begin
1822-1884
68
Who was Gregor Mendel (3)
Monk
Conducted experiments on pea plants
Choose them because of there short growing time, ability to self-fertilize, and cross fertilize
69
Define monohybrid cross
When only one trait is being considered in a cross of two organisms.
70
What is a pure line organism
An organism that always breeds the same results with out any variance.
71
Define genotype
The genetic makeup represented by the combination of allele letters
72
Define phenotype
Physical appearance of the organism resulting from the genotype
73
Define homozygous
When an organism carries to identical copies of the same allele
74
Define heterozygous
When an organism carries two different copies of an allele
75
What is the law of segregation
During the production of gametes the two copies of each hereditary sere gate of that offspring acquire one factor from each parent
76
What is the law of independent assortment
Individual hereditary factors assort independently during gamete production, giving different traits an equal opportunity of occurring together
77
True or false DNA is made of a 5c sugar, phosphate and nitrogen base
True
78
T or F chromosomes are visible throughout the cell cycle
F
79
Synopsis occurs during prophase 2
F
80
T or F upon the completion of oogensis, 4 haploid cells are made
F
81
T or F the sole purpose of mitosis is growth
F
82
T or F GG is an example of homozygous recessive
F
83
Albinism is caused by a recessive allele in humans. If normal parents have an albino child what is the probability that their next child will be normal for pigment? (3)
The birth of every child is a separate event
Each time a child is born there is a 1 in 4 chance of that child being albino
The prohibits of the next child will be 1/4
84
Assume brown eyes are dominant over blue eyes. A brown-eyed man marries a blue-eyed women. Explain how the genotype of the man can be determined.
Look at the offspring
If they have enough children and if any of the children have blue eyes, then he is heterozygous for brown eyes
It is not ethical to perform a cross between two individuals to determine the alleles they are carrying
85
What is a non-disjunction error
When the meiotic process is completed abnormally
86
What is a mutation
An error in the DNA itself
87
What is a single polypeptide
| Who discovered them
A chain of amino acids
| George Beatle, Edward Tatum
88
What is a point mutation
| What three things can cause this
An error at a single point in the DNA
- deletion of base pair
- shifting of base pair
- substitution of a base pair
89
Explain what happens with amino acids and polypeptides (3)
Amino acids are linked in specific sequence to form a polypeptides
Polypeptides join with other polypeptides to make proteins
An error in the codon may result in a mix up in the sequence of amino acids
90
What is sickle cell anemia
Point mutation
All red blood cells take on irregular curved sickle shape
This makes them fragile and easily broken
This affects millions around the world
1 and 10 carry the disease in Africa
91
Define deletion
A part of the chromosome is missing
92
Define duplication
A part of the chromosome is duplicated more than one time
93
Define inversion
A part of the chromosome is inverted on the same chromosome so the genes on that segment are in a different location
94
Define insertion
A part of chromosome is inserted into another chromosome
95
Define translocation
A part of the chromosome is translocation to the other end of another chromosome
96
Explain nondisjunction (3)
Error that occurs in meiosis
Chromosomes can move to the wrong daughter cells
The result is a sperm or egg with an extra or missing chromosomes
97
What is karyotyping (3)
Way nondisjunction disorders are identified
Take picture of chromosomes in prophase of mitosis and match them up with homologous chromosomes
This shows missing or extra chromosomes
98
Practise genetic questions
See answers
99
Practise karyotyping
See answers
100
What is turned syndrome
When a female is missing an X chromosome which can cause neck webbing
101
What is the cause and symptoms of Down syndrome (4)
Three number twenty-one chromosomes
flattened facial features
Poor muscle tone
Short neck"
102
What is the cause and symptoms of Huntington's disease (4)
Abnormal HD gene passed from parents to children @ 50% rate
ES: slowing or stiffness
MS: drop things or fall
LS: changes in speech
103
What is the treatment and prognosis of Down syndrome (4)
no cure
Team of people to help care for child and special educators to help with learning disabilities
live to 50 or beyond in most cases
Can marry and with help of team of specialists can live rich full lives"
104
What is the treatment and prognosis of Huntington's disease (5)
medications to help with the fidgeting
Physiotherapist to helps with stiffness and ease movements
Exercise helps with the disease
runs its course in 10-30 years
Patient usually dies of a complication like heart failure
105
What is reproductive technology
The use of technology to assist or enhance reproduction in humans or other organisms
106
Define cloning
The creation of a organism that is a genetic copy of another
107
Where did the first clone take place and what was it of
Edinburgh, Scotland
| Dolly the sheep
108
How was dolly created (7)
Somatic cell transfer
Nucleus of cell from female sheep was extracted
It was then transferred onto an oocyte (egg) and that nucleus had been removed
The cell was treated with hormones and electric shock to behave like a zygote
The cell was planted in the surrogate sheep to be carried to term
The sheep was an exact genetic replicate of the sheep the nucleus was taken from
Dolly died after 6 1/2 her expected lifespan
109
Name another process used in cloning
Artificial embryo twining
110
Define Recombinant DNA (rDNA)
Artificial DNA from combining the DNA of two different species
111
What are plasmids
Segments of circular DNA found in bacteria that naturally occur
112
What did scientists discover while studying bacteria
Plasmids are transferred from one bacteria to another
| When the bacteria transfer a plasmid the genes are incorporated into the DNA of the recipient background
113
What are restriction endoncleases
A class of enzyme that a cut through double stranded DNA
114
What do restriction endoncleases do
They cut the DNA in a specific spot to create a sticky end so that the gene from a different species can be inserted
115
What are 3 methods for coup,Es to help with infertility
Sperm extraction
Hormone treatment
Vitro fertilization
116
What is vitro fertilization (6)
When you have low sperm count or another problem and you can't get pregnant
This procedure helps you get pregnant with a 40% success rate
They first inject you with hormones so you have more eggs
They they put you to sleep and using a hallow needle remove the eggs
They then pair then with the sperm and watch them grow for 1-6 days
Then they put the embryos back in the uterus where they can grow and develop
117
What is embryo transfer
Last step in vitro fertilization
Take embryo and transfers it through a thin catheter into the uterus through the vagina
Usually put 4 embryos in to increase the chance of pregnancy
Painless procedure
118
What is biotechnology
Taking advantage of biological processes for industry use
| EX. Manipulation of microorganism stop make antibiotics
119
Name three disciplines that use biotechnology
Cell biology
Genetics
Biochemistry
120
Name three enterprises that use biotechnology
Increasing crop yields
Enhancing food
Genetic testing
121
What are stem cells
Undifferentiated cells they are cells have not yet been specialized they can turn into any cell such as a brain or liver cell
122
Where do stem cells come from (2)
Come from embroyos in the blastocyst stage
| Although found in human adults they are hard to obtain
123
What are GMO's (6)
Genetically modified organisms
They are made with DNA splicing techniques
Upside we get more product
Downside bad effects on environment, lots of chemicals used for upkeep
Foods in Canada are not labeled as GMO,s
Many products in Canada have GMO ingredients in them
124
What are embroyotic stem cells (4)
Unspecialized cells
Taken from embryo and then embryo is destroyed
Used for cell therapy and research into embryo growth
When transferred to patient if they are not on drugs to suppress the immune system the procedure will fail.
125
What are somatic stem cells (5)
Cell found in adults that are used to heal and grow your body
Because they are adult cells they can only be used to become related cells
Like embryonic patient needs drug to suppress immune system
They are hard to find and culture without causing damage to vital organs and tissue
Used for none marrow transplant
126
Define autosome
Any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome
127
Define chromsome
threadlike structure of nucleic acid and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells carrying genetic information in the form of genes
128
Define allele
One or two or more alternative forms of a gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome
129
Define test cross
A cross between an individual exhibiting the dominant phenotype of a trait and an individual that is homozygous recessive for the trait in order to determine the genotype of the dominant individual
130
Define monohybrid cross
A monohybrid cross is a breeding experiment between a parental generation organism that differs in one trait
131
Define Punnett square
Used to predict the probability of offspring have a specific genotype devolved by Reginald C. Punnett
132
Define dihybrid cross
Cross between two pure line that differ in two observed traits
133
Define recessive
A gene that gets trumped by a dominant gene
134
Define dominant
A gene that trumps a recessive gene
135
Define co-dominance
When neither allele is dominant or recessive and both are shown
136
Define incomplete dominance
When one allele does not completely dominate another allele
137
If you have genes AA what is your blood type
A
138
If you have genes AO what is your blood type
A
139
If you have genes AB what is your blood type
AB
140
If you have genes BO what is your blood type
B
141
If you have genes BB what is your blood type
B
142
If you have genes OO what is your blood type
O
143
Name one degree Judith Hall has
MD U of Washington
144
Name 3 things JH studied
Genetics of short stature
Dwarfism
Identical twins
145
Name 2 ways in which JH contributed to genetics
Helped discover how folic acid reduces birth defects
| Identified new cause of dwarfism
146
How did JH Impact society name 2
Lead path to learning more about genetic birth defects
| Head of paediatrics at BC children's hospital
147
What current studies is JH involved with
Nothing new
| Using her research to help children at BC children's hospital
