Bio Final Flashcards
________ is the evolutionary history of an organism
phylogeny
order of hierarchical classification
Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, family, genus, Species
If Phylo tree: if a group consists of distinctly related species but does not include their common ancestor, you can descrbe the group as ____phyletic
Polyphyletic
Which of the following is false about prokaryotes:
small + reproduce rapidly
confined to water
mutations drive rapid evolution
single celled and make up Bacteria and archaea domains
lack membrane bound organelles
False: confined to aquatic environments
which is correct:
most bact walls have chitin
gram-pos are pink
gram-neg are structurally mroe complex
gram-neg are more complex
conjugation occurs when DNA is transferred btw 2 prokaryoutic cells via a ______
pilus
barry marshall won the 2005 nobel prize in physiology for his discovery of the bacterium ______ and its room in causing peptic ulcers by drinking it
helicobacter pylori
lyme diease is causde by ______
borrelia burgdorferi
t/f protist is anything not a plant/anima/fungus
true
fungi are highly efficient at maximizing their surface area to abosrb nutrients by _______
developing extensive networks of hyphae
_______ are mutualistiic associations of fungus and plant roots
mycorrhizae
Charophyte algae accumulated traits over time that alllowed them to live about the water line. which aof the following are not one of the traits:
cuticle for water retention
stomata for gas
roots for anchoarge
chloroplast for photosynthesis
Chloroplast for photosynthesis
Hepatophyta are referred to as
liverworts
What is xylem and phloem
xylem transports water and minerals, while pholem transports sugars and organic compounds
What are the 2 nitrogenous compounds that plants can absorb
Nitrate (NO3-) and ammonium (NH4+)
what is a clade of animals with tissues
Eumetazoa
______ may cause trichionosis when one consumes raw pork
Trichinella Spiralis
Crabs, lobsters, barnacles belong to the group _____
crustacea
What is paedomorphosis
retain larval/juvenile features in their adult stage
Which of the following are derived characteristic of mammals? Not derived?
mammary glands
hair
kidney
ectothermy
Derived: glands, hair, kidney
Ancetor: Ectothermy
Birds, mammals, and crocs have __-chambered hearts
four
which 2 teeth are used for crushing and grinding food in humans
premolars and molars
Monotremes are _____
egg-laying mammals
How do marsupial embryos receive nutrition
through a placenta that connects the embryo to the mothers bloodstream
What statement correctly compares new world and old world monkeys
new world have prehensile tails while old world do not
Whats the study of human origin called
paleoanthropology
T/F humans evolved from chimps
flase
Hominins are believed to have originated in___-
africa
Define Biodiversity
all of the diversity/variety of life on Earth
Define Systematics
study of evolutionary relationships between
organism(s)
Define Taxonomy
the science of naming organisms
Define Taxon (taxa)
a named group of organisms
Define Classification
assigning organisms to meaningful, hierarchical groups (like genera or families)
Define Phylogeny
Define its parts
evolutionary history of an organism(s); where
things originate; ancestry
PARTS:
Root: ancestral population
from which all the other
species originate
node: a branching point
from the ancestral
population
clade: a piece of a
phylogeny that includes an
ancestral lineage and all the
descendants of that ancestor
What is binomial nomenclature? How should it be typed and handwritten?
system of naming species? Genus (capital) + specific epithet (lower case) *all in italics
List the ranks of Hierarchical classification from the most inclusive to the least inclusive
Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
Linnean Classification vs. Phylogeny
How do they differ?
Linnean uses physical characteristics, while Phylo uses evolutionary history (results of common ancestry: ex Morphology, Genes, Biochemistry of the relevant organisms)
What is the main limitation of the Linnaean classification?
t is based on morphological (physical) characteristics
* Groups organisms based on their “shared” characteristics (its static)
Homologous vs. Analogous Features
+ Definition
Homo: Phenotypic and genetic similarities due to shared ancestry
Ana: Similarities between organisms that are due to convergent evolution
Monophyletic, Paraphyletic, and Polyphyletic Groups
Mono: One tribe
Para: onsists of an ancestral species and SOME,
but not all, of its descendants
Poly: he most recent common ancestor is not part of
the group
Which of the following taxa are problematic when the goal is to construct phylogenies that accurately reflect evolutionary history
Paraphyletic
Polyphyletic
Monophyletic
Poly + Para
Poly + Para
By Definitions, a clade is _____ Para/Poly/monophyletic
monophyletic
Three living species X, Y, Z share common ancestor T, so do extinct species U and V. A grouping that consists species T, X, Y, and Z, but not U or V is a ________ group
Paraphyletic
Examples of homologous features
Human, cat, whale and bat forelimbs
Embryo
Example of analogous features
Bat, crow, and butterfly wings
What evidence did scientists use to hypothesize a relationship between birds and dinosaurs? Was it based on internal organs, behavior, or morphology?
Common ancestor based on behavior
Fossil of An Oviraptor crouching over a group of eggs in a posture
similar to how birds sit on their
nests today
What are the three domains of life?
Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya
What do Cell Walls of Plants, Fungi, and Bacteria contain
Plants: Cellulose
Fungi: Chitin
Bac: Peptidoglycan
What color do gram pos/neg stain
Pos: Purple
Neg: Pink
Why do Gram-Pos/Neg stain purple and pink?
Dye sticks to peptidoglycan, so gram-neg has the dye washed away
What are some structural differences between Gram pos/neg bac
Gram-positive has alot of Peptidoglycan and are less structurally complex
What is peptidoglycan
A polymer made of modified
sugars cross-linked by short
polypeptides
Bacteria Capsules
- Dense and well-defined (or a
slime layer) - Sticky outer layers enable them
to adhere to their substrate or
other individuals in a colony
protect against dehydration - Shield pathogenic prokaryotes
from their host’s attacks
Bacteria Endospores
Certain bacteria can develop
resistant cells called endospores
when they lack water or
essential nutrients
* Endospores are extremely
durable that they can survive in
boiling water
* In a less hostile environment,
endospores can remain dormant
but viable for centuries
Bacteria Fimbrae
hairlike structure to stick to their
substrate or to one another
What is binary fission, and what is the final product of this reproduction?
Asexual reproduction that creates a offspring that is genetically identical to the original parent cell
(Most bacteria reproduce this way)
Transformation
Transduction
Conjugation
Transform: the genotype
(and possibly phenotype) of a
prokaryotic cell is altered by the
uptake of foreign DNA from its
surroundings
Transduct: phages (or
bacteriophages; viruses that infect
bacteria) carry prokaryotic genes
from one host cell to another
Con: DNA is
transferred between two
prokaryotic cells (usually the same
species) that are temporarily joined (unidirectional)
Obligate Aerobe
must have O2 for cellular respiration and
can’t grow without oxygen
Obligate Anaerobe
oxygen is lethal for these organisms;
live exclusively by fermentation
Facultative Anaerobe
can use O2 if present, but can also
carry out fermentation or anaerobic respiration without it!
Microaerophile
only likes small [O2]
What does “obligate” mean?
it needs it
What disease does Treponema Pallidum cause?
syphilis
Halophiles vs. thermophiles
halo= salty environment
thermo=hot environment
What does symbiosis mean?
Two species live in close
contact with each other
Usually, the larger organism
in this relationship is
considered a ‘host’ and the
smaller is known as the
‘symbiont’
Mutualism vs. commensalism vs. parasitism
+ Examples
Mutual: Both species benefit (Clownfish+Sea Aneonme, mycorrhizae)
Comm: One benefits while the other is not harmed or helped (Cattle egrets)
One (parasite) harms (but
usually does not kill) their host (Ticks (animal w a parasitic mushroom= Mycosis)
Why are protists considered not a formal taxon?
Protists are more closely related to plants, fungi, or animals than they are to other protists
Anything that is not a plant, fungi, or animal
What is endosymbiosis, and how does it occur?
A relationship between
two species in which one
organism lives inside the
cell of another organism
What disease does Trypanosoma cause, and how is it transmitted?
cause Chagas’
disease
* Transmitted by
bloodsucking insects and
can lead to congestive heart
failure
Uses bait and switch
Some fungal species live in plants and can kill herbivores that feed on the plant. What type of relationship does this fungus have with its host?
mutualistic
Most protists are ____cellular
Most protists are unicellular.
Holdfast
stipe
blades
How do they compare to plant structures?
Algae Structures
Holdfast – a rootlike structure;
anchors down algae
Stipe – a stemlike structure
Blades – leaflike structure
Sporophytes
gametophytes
How do they differ, and what do they produce?
Sporophytes – diploid individual; produces spores
The spores are haploid and move by flagella
Gametophytes – produce gametes
What does plasmodium cause, and how does it use two different hosts (mosquitoes and humans)?
Causes Malaria
Sexual reproduction in the mosquito gut, asexual in humans
Name of Red Algae vs. Green Algae
Red: rhodophytes
Green: Charophytes/Cholorophytes
Green algae can be divided into two groups: What are they, and how do they differ?
Charophytes: Most like plants (water edges)
Choloropytes: Freshwater
sexual and asexual (marine and terrestrial)
What are pediastrum commonly called, and what do they cause?
“Pond alga”
* Form colonies of individual cells
* Contribute to the pond scum
What are Ulva commonly called, and what structures do they lack?
“Sea lettuce”
* Edible chlorophyte
* Have blades and holdfast
* Form true multicellular bodies
by cell division and
differentiation
How do fungi retrieve nutrients, and how do they grow?
Heterotrophs that absorb nutrients (Decompose, mutualistic, parasitic)
Formation of multicellular filaments (hyphae) to grow
What are the sexual and asexual modes of reproduction in fungi?
Sexual- Plasmogamy: The union of the cytoplasm of two parent mycelia
Karyogamy: haploid nuclei Fuse, making a diploid
asexually- by growing as filamentous fungi
Budding
fungi doesn’t have sexual
repro = deuteromycete
Fungi are most closely related to which eukaryotic group?
Animalia
How do fungi form mutualistic relationships with other species?
Absorb nutrients from a host organism
* Reciprocate with actions that benefit the host
EX: Make toxins that deter herbivores
Digestive services
Which animals do Chytrid fungi impact?
Frogs/Amphibians
In fungi, what are the filament structure? groups of them?
hyphae, mycelium
branching hyphae that allow
fungi to exchange nutrients
with living plants
Arbuscules
Mycorrhizae
Mycosis
general term for an
infection of an animal by a
fungal parasite
Why did charophyte algae eventually move to land? What advantages did they gain by doing so?
natural selection favors individual
algae that can survive periods
when they are not submerged
(drying)
sporopollenin (prevents charophyte zygotes from drying out)
benefits
* Bright sunlight (unfiltered by water)
* More carbon dioxide
* Rich in minerals
What unique features do plants have, and why are they important?
- Alternation of generations
- Walled spores produced in sporangia (protected by sporopollenin)
- Apical meristems- Localized regions of cell division at the tips of roots and shoots (Can continuously divide)
- Cuticles (wax & polymers)- “Waterproof” covering on the epidermis of many plant species (Prevents water loss)
- Stomata (sing. stoma)- Specialized pores, Allows for exchange of CO2 and O2 during photosynthesis
Hepatophyta
What are they commonly called, and what shapes do they exhibit?
Liverworts
Liver-shaped gametophytes
“Thalloid” liverwort – flattened shape of gametophyte
“Leafy” liverwort – stemlike shape of gametophyte
Xylem vs. Phloem
What are the directions of flow, the substances carried, and the organs involved?
Xylem = carries most of water and minerals from roots to shoots (One-way flow)
Phloem = carries sugars, amino acids, and other organic products (Two-way flow)
Anthocerophyta
What are they commonly called, and what shapes do they exhibit?
hornworts
the long, tapered shape of the
sporophyte
Consists only of a sporangium- splits open and release mature spores at the tip (No seta)
Bryophyta
What are they commonly called, and what shapes do they exhibit?
Mosses
carpet’ mosses composed mainly of gametophytes
Homosporous vs. Heterosporous Plants
How many types of spores are produced by each?
Which one is bisexual (producing both eggs and sperm)?
homo:1 type of sporophyll that bears 1 type of sporangium that produces 1 type of spore (BIsexual)
hetero: 2 types of sporophylls (leaves that bear sporangia [structures that produce spores])
Which type of plant has gametophyte dominance, and which has sporophyte dominance?
Vascular plants’ life cycles have dominant sporophytes
Nonvasc have dominant gametophyte
Why are most species considered evergreens? What advantages do they gain by staying green year-round?
Micro/Megaphylls
Microphylls – small, spine-shaped
leaves supported by a single strand
of vascular tissue
* Megaphylls – highly branched
vascular system; greater
photosynthetic productivity than
microphylls
What are the functions of fruits?
Protection/dispersal of seeds
Sporophylls
modified leaves
that bear sporangia
Strobili (sing. strobilus) –
cone-like structures that hold sporangia
2 sexual organs of a flower
2 sterile
Carpels (F) and stamens (M)
sterile=petals + sepal (green leave surrounding flower)
Parts of carpel
Stigma – sticky part of carpel; receives pollen
* Style - stalk
* Ovary – where egg-containing ovules develop
Pistil – can be used to refer to a single
carpel or a group of fused carpels
Parts of stamen
Filament – stalk portion
* Anther – terminal sac where pollen grains form
Cells, tissues, and organs
What are they? How are they made up?
Cell: unit of life
Tissue: A group of cells that perform a specialized function together
Organ: Consists of several types of
tissues that carry out a particular
function together
What is the Shoot system composed of?
What functions does it primarily serve?
Stems, Leaves, Flowers
Depends on water and minerals from roots
Function = elongate/orient the
shoot to maximize photosynthesis
Components:
* Nodes – where leaves are
attached + Internodes
What is the root system composed of?
What functions does it primarily serve?
Anchor it to the soil
Absorb and transport minerals and water
Store food (usually carbs)
Dependent on shoots
Root hairs – thin, finger-like
extensions of root epidermal cells
that emerge and increase the surface area of the root
Primary vs. Secondary growth
What controls these mechanisms?
Primary: Apical meristems – located at
root and shoot tips; enable
primary growth (growth in
length)
Secondary: lateral meristems- Vascular cambium, Cork cambium
3 components of leaves
Blade – flattened portion of leaf
Petiole – stalk that joins the leaf
to the stem at a node
Veins – vascular tissue
Monocots generally parallel
Eudicots generally branched
3 types of plant tissue
Dermal
- Guard cells – involved in gas
exchange
- Trichomes – hairlike
outgrowth on a plant shoot (reduce water loss and
reflect excess light
Vascular
- transport of materials
throughout plant
- Mechanical support
Ground
- Tissue that is neither dermal
nor vascular
- Pith – ground tissue internal to
vascular tissue
- Cortex – ground tissue external
to vascular tissue
How isn’t plant growth limited to the embryonic and juvenile stage (in other words, how can they grow indefinitely)?
Meristem – plant tissue that
remains embryonic as long as
the plant lives
Apical meristems produce 3 types
of primary meristems:
- Protoderm → dermal tissue
(epidermis) - Ground meristem → ground tissue
(photosynthesis, storage, & support) - Procambium → vascular tissue
(xylem & phloem; transport)
What is self-pruning in plants?
nonproductive leaves or branches undergo programmed cell death
Less shading of higher leaves
(respiration < photosynthesis)
* In general, more leaves = more
self-pruning
How is osmosis controlled by water potential (how does it direct water flow)?
the diffusion of free water across a membrane (Not bound to solutes)
Water will move from [high water
potential] → [low water potential]. from a low [solute] to high [solute].
What does transpiration mean (how is this process performed)?
the process by which moisture (water) is carried through the tree from roots to stomata
Controlled by the stomata and guard cells
Stimulants: Light, CO2, ‘internal clock’
via xylem
What does translocation mean (how is this process performed)?
Regulates movement of
photosynthates (products of
photosynthesis)
Via Phloem
Primarily downward direction
(but can be upward)
What are the plants that are specifically adapted to living and surviving in dry and arid conditions?
Xerophytes
fleshy stems, reduced leaves, and stomata that are closed during the day
Cephalocereus senilis (old man cactus) is adapted to desert due to?
Long, white hairlike bristles help reflect the intense sunlight and keep insects off
Apoplast vs Symplast
Apoplast – everything external
to the plasma membrane of a
plant cell
* Symplast – continuum of
cytosol connected by
plasmodesmata between cells
Which is more vulnerable to being leached anions or cations in soil?
what is leaching?
anions 9do not bind to neg charge soil)
Leaching: percolation of water through soil
How do farmers combat the depletion of minerals in soil?
crop rotation (planting plants that help absorb/replenish minerals)
What are the 3 minerals included in inorganic soil
What does each number represent?
nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), and potassium (K)
ratio of each mineral
What is phytoremediation? Why is this important?
Nondestructive biotechnology that takes advantage of some plant
species’ abilities to extract heavy metals/other pollutants from the soil and concentrate them in easily harvested portions of the plant
Ex: Thlaspi caerulescens can
accumulate zinc 300x higher than
most plants can tolerate.
6 major Macronutrience
1 micronutrience
Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen. Oxygen, Phosphorous, Sulfur
Micro: sodium
What nitrogenous compounds can plants absorb?
nitrate: NO3-
ammonium: NH4+
Rhizobacteria
bacteria that live either in close association with plant roots (the rhizosphere) or with closely surrounding plant roots
protection (antibiotics), toxic metal
absorption, and nitrogen
fixation
Epiphytes
Plants that grow on another plant
Plants prefer _________ soil
slightly acidic
sexual reproduction of animals
Gametic meiosis
* Gametes (n) made by meiosis
* Zygotes (2n) made by
fertilization (i.e., syngamy)
How do you go from zygote to gastrula?
- Once there is a zygote, it
undergoes cleavage (multiple
mitotic cell divisions without
cell growth). - Cleavage leads to a
multicellular, embryonic,
hollow cell called a blastula. - Gastrulation occurs next,
where one end of the embryo
folds inward and expands. - Gastrulation results in the
layers of embryonic tissues - The resulting stage is called a
gastrula.
What is a larval stage? How does it differ from the adult stage?
A larva is a sexually immature
form of an animal that is
morphologically distinct from the
adult
(Eat different food & Have a different habitat)
example of bilateral symmetry
Lobster
example of radial symmetry
Hydra (polyp)
example of asymmetric symmetry
Sponge
Diploblastic vs. triploblastic
How many germ layers does each have? What layers are they composed of?
Diplo: 2 layers, endo + ecto
Triplo: 3 layers, endo + meso + ecto
Protostomes vs. deuterostomes
Mouth or anus first?
Proto: Mouth
Deutero: Anus
Why are sponges not considered true animals?
they lack true tissues
How do sponges feed?
Filter feeders – filter out generally large food
particles that are commonly suspended in
the water column
What are some specialized cells that are found within sponges?
Choanocytes – flagellated cells that engulf bacteria and other food
particles by phagocytosis
Amoebocytes - amoeba-like cell that moves by pseudopodia
* take up food from the surrounding water
* totipotent (capable of becoming other types of sponge cells)
What does hermaphroditism mean?
How do these animals reproduce?
each individual functions as both
male and female in reproduction by producing sperm AND eggs
sexual (pen fencing)
What is coral bleaching? How would global warming/rising temperature of the ocean impact them?
bleach: Increase in seawater temperatures clears out
their algal symbionts
Coral looses major food, looses color, and is susceptible to disease
Hotter=more bleaching
Gills vs. lungs
What purpose do they both serve?
What may be a difference between these two structures?
Lungs are for gas exchange
Gills can be used for feeding and gas exchange
Gills have mucus that coats their lungs and allows for filter feeding
What does being ubiquitous mean?
found everywhere
Hemolymph
Analogous structure found in a closed circulatory system?
Contains hemolymph (a fluid that
functions in internal transport of
nutrients and waste)
* Analogous to human blood
Trichinella spiralis
What do they cause?
How do you obtain them?
Causes trichinosis
* Obtained by eating raw or
undercooked pork/meat
* Juvenile worms live inside
pork/meat muscle tissue
Complete vs. incomplete metamorphosis
In: young (nymphs) resemble
adults but are smaller, have
different body proportions, and lack wings
Complete: Larval stage looks completely different from adult stage (specialized for eating+growing) includes pupal stage
Of the 3 groups discussed, what was important about Chordata?
Chordates are Deuterostomia
4 key characteristics of chordates
- The common ancestor of all
vertebrates had a skull and
backbone composed of
vertebrae. - Hagfishes and lampreys are a sister group to all other animals (and most distantly related)
- Limbs with digits was a key development for terrestrial life.
- An amniotic egg is only found in
reptiles and mammals.
Cyclostomes vs. gnathostomes
Cyclo: no Jaw (hagfish(Class Myxini) and lampreys (Petromyzontida)
Gnath: jawed
Chondrichthyes vs. osteichthyes
What are their common names?
How do they differ?
Chon: cartilage fish (sharks + rays)
Osteichthyes: bony-fish
nearly all living osteichthyans have an ossified (bony) endoskeleton while Chondrichthyes have skeletons made of cartilage
Sharks need to continuously swim (two reasons)
Prevents sinking (denser than water)
* Ensures constant water flow (mouth-> gills) for gas exchange
Why do amphibians require damp habitats?
moist skin for respiration
eggs dehydrate
Amniotic egg
Where does the name stem from?
What are the components of the amniotic eggs? (4)
Amniotic egg is named for one of the extra membranes, the amnion
Components
- Chorion – eliminates
nitrogenous waste and
functions in gas exchange
- Yolk sac – contains yolk +
nutrients
- Allantois – disposal for
metabolic wastes
- Amnion- fluid filled cavitycusions from mechanical shock
ectothermic vs. endothermic animals
Ecto:External heat is absorbed as main source of body heat (changes behavior)
Endo: Can maintain internal temp through metabolism
Crocodilians
What are they composed of?
Can you tell the differences between the two species?
Crocs + Alligators
Crocs: V shaped snout, more aggressive, salt water
Alli: U shaped snout, less agressive, freshwater
How did birds adapt their morphology/physiology to be able to fly?
Strong pectoralis muscles and feathers
Wings are remodeled tetrapod
forelimbs
* Bones have a honeycombed
internal structure and are filled
with air (light bones)
* Downy feathers provide
insulation
What are the flightless birds called?
Ratites
Oviparous vs. viviparous mammals
Which is the egg-laying animal?
examples
OvI: lay eggs that
hatch outside the mother’s body (fish)
Vivi: young develops within the uterus and obtain nourishment prior to birth by receiving nutrients from the mother’s blood through a yolk sac placenta (mammals)
New World vs. Old World monkeys
All species of New World monkeys are arboreal, whereas Old World monkeys include ground-dwelling as well as arboreal species
2 Misconceptions about human evolution
- Humans are not chimpanzees,
nor did they evolve from
chimpanzees. - Human evolution is not a
”ladder” that leads directly from
an ancestral ape to H. sapiens.
Opposable thumbs
What species show this feature?
How do they serve different purposes in different species, including humans?
Primates
Mnkey + ape: opposable thumb functions in a grasping “power grip”
Human: precise manipulation
What is the study of human evolution/origin?
Paleoanthropology
