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Bio Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Lamarckian Ideology

A

Lamarckian theory is a theory of evolution based on the principle that physical changes in organisms during their lifetime can be transmitted to their offspring

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2
Q

Theory of Evolution

A

The theory of evolution is the idea that all living things share a common ancestor and change over time due to natural selection and other factors.

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3
Q

Extinction

A

creatures that have no populations on Earth anymore

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4
Q

Transitional features

A

A trait that is intermediate between a trait observed in ancestral (older) species and the homologous trait observed in derived (younger) species.

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5
Q

Vestigial traits

A

A reduced or incompletely developed structure that has no function, or reduced function, but is clearly similar to functioning organs or structures in ancestral or closely related species

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6
Q

Homology

A

Similarity among organisms of different species due to shared ancestry. Features that exhibit such similarity (e.g., DNA sequences, proteins, body parts) are said to be homologous

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7
Q

Developmental homology

A

A similarity in embryonic form or developmental processes that is due to inheritance from a common ancestor.

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8
Q

Structural homology

A

Similarities in adult organismal structures (e.g., limbs, flowers) that are due to inheritance from a common ancestor.

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9
Q

Darwin’s 4 Postulates of Natural Selection

A
  1. Individuals within population are variable
  2. Some of these variations are passed on to offspring
  3. Not all individuals produce the same number of offspring
  4. Individuals with certain heritable traits produce the most offspring
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10
Q

Evolutionary fitness

A

The ability of an individual to produce viable offspring relative to others of the same species.

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11
Q

Evolutionary adaption

A

Any heritable trait that increases the fitness of an individual with that trait, compared with individuals without that trait, in a particular environment.

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12
Q

Evolution

A

(1) The theory that all organisms on Earth are related by common ancestry and that they have changed over time, and continue to change, via natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow, and mutation. (2) Any change in the genetic characteristics of a population over time, especially a change in allele frequencies.

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13
Q

Trait

A

Any observable characteristic at any level of observation of an individual

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14
Q

Polymorphic trait

A

A trait for which more than one form of an allele commonly appears in a population

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15
Q

Phenotype

A

Physical makeup

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16
Q

Genotype

A

Genetic makeup

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17
Q

Allele

A

A particular version of a gene

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18
Q

Gene

A

(1) In a molecular context, a section of DNA (or RNA, for some viruses) that contains the regulatory sequences and coding information for the transcription of one or more related functional RNA molecules, some of which encode polypeptides. (2) In Mendelian genetics, the hereditary determinant of a trait, such as flower color or seed shape in pea plants.

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19
Q

Autosomal Inheritance

A

The inheritance patterns that occur when genes are located on autosomes rather than on sex chromosomes

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20
Q

Homozygous

A

Having two identical alleles of a gene

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21
Q

Heterozygous

A

Having two different alleles of a gene

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22
Q

Dominant Allele

A

Referring to a trait or allele whose phenotypic effect is observed when it is present in homozygous or heterozygous form. Dominant typically is used to mean complete dominance.

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23
Q

Recessive Allele

A

Referring to a trait or allele whose phenotypic effect is observed only in homozygous individuals. Compare with dominant.

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24
Q

Pure line

A

In genetics, a strain that produces offspring identical to the parents when self-fertilized or mated within the strain. Pure lines are homozygous for the gene under study

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25
Hybrid
The offspring of parents from two different strains, populations, or species
26
Reciprocal cross
A cross in which the mother’s and father’s phenotypes are the reverse of those examined in a previous cross.
27
Test Cross
Experiment Mendel used
28
X Linkage
X chromosome are said to be X-linked. X-linked genes have distinctive inheritance patterns because they are present in different numbers in females (XX) and males (XY).
29
Y Linkage
Genes located on Y chromosomes
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Monohybrid Cross
A mating between two homozygous parents that differ in alleles of one gene. Produces monohybrid offspring. A monohybrid cross is usually continued through the generation
31
Dihybrid Cross
A mating between two homozygous parents that differ in alleles of two different genes. Produces dihybrid offspring. A dihybrid cross is usually continued through the generation
32
Principle of Inheritance
mendels principles
33
Principle of Segregation
The principle of segregation is a genetic law that states that each individual has two alleles for each trait, and these alleles separate during gamete formation -- occurs meiosis 1
34
Law of Independent Assortment
The concept that each pair of hereditary elements (alleles of the same gene) segregates (separates) independently of alleles of other genes during meiosis. One of Mendel’s two principles of genetics -- occurs metaphase meiosis 1
35
Mutiple Allelism
The existence of more than two common alleles of the same gene.
36
Codominance
An inheritance pattern in which heterozygotes exhibit both of the traits seen in each type of homozygous individual.
37
Incomplete Dominance
An inheritance pattern in which the phenotype of a heterozygote is between the phenotypes of the homozygotes.
38
Pleiotropy
The ability of a single gene to affect more than one trait.
39
Gene x Gene interaction
In most populations of humans, height has been increasing steadily over the past 150 years
40
Gene x environment interaction
The genetic make-up of the population did not change, but the environment did. Now people who had a genetic predisposition to myopia are now expressing the trait.
41
Epistasis
A form of gene interaction in which the phenotype associated with a particular genotype of one gene can be masked, or hidden, by a specific genotype of another gene.
42
Discrete Trait
An inherited trait that exhibits distinct phenotypes rather than the continuous variation of a quantitative trait such as body height.
43
Quantitative Trait
A trait that exhibits continuous phenotypic variation (as in human height) rather than the clearly separated phenotypes of a discrete trait (such as yellow versus green pea seeds)
44
Chromosome
Gene-carrying structure consisting of a single long molecule of double-stranded DNA and associated proteins (e.g., histones). Most prokaryotic cells contain a single circular chromosome; eukaryotic cells contain multiple noncircular (linear) chromosomes located in the nucleus.
45
Chromatid
One of the two identical double-stranded DNAs that are connected at the centromere and compose a replicated chromosome.
46
Sister Chromatid
The paired, double-stranded DNA copies of a recently replicated chromosome. They are connected most tightly at the centromere and eventually separate during anaphase of mitosis or meiosis II. Compare with non-sister chromatids.
47
Homolog
The same type of chromosomes (carrying genes for the same traits) in a diploid or polyploid organism.
48
Bivalent
A pair of synapsed homologous chromosomes during prophase of meiosis I.
49
Haploid
(1) Having one set of chromosomes (1n, or more commonly, n for short). (2) A cell or an individual organism with one set of chromosomes
50
Diploid
1) Having two sets of chromosomes (2n). (2) A cell or an organism with two sets of chromosomes, one set inherited from the mother and one set from the father. Compare with haploid.
51
Ploidy
The number of complete chromosome sets present in a cell. Haploid refers to a ploidy of 1; diploid, a ploidy of 2; triploid, a ploidy of 3; and tetraploid, a ploidy of 4.
52
Mitosis
cell replication
53
Meiosis
Sex gametes creation
54
Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance
It states that genes are located at specific locations on chromosomes, and that the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis and fertilization can explain Mendel’s laws of inheritance2354. It is the fundamental theory of genetics2.
55
Recombination
A change in the combination of alleles on a given chromosome or in a given individual. Also called recombination.
56
Null allele
A mutant allele that does not produce a functional gene product
57
RNA
a polymeric molecule that is essential for most biological functions, either by performing the function itself (Non-coding RNA) or by forming a template for production of proteins (messenger RNA).
58
mRNA
An RNA molecule transcribed from DNA that carries information (in codons) that specifies the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide.
59
Amino Acid
A small organic molecule with a central carbon atom bonded to an amino group (–NH3), a carboxyl group (–COOH), a hydrogen atom, and a side chain. When amino acids are linked together to form proteins, they are referred to as residues
60
Polypeptide
A chain typically consisting of 50 or more amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.
61
Protein
A macromolecule consisting of one or more polypeptide chains. Each polypeptide has a unique sequence of amino acids and each protein generally possesses a characteristic three-dimensional shape
62
Ribosome
A large macromolecular machine that synthesizes proteins by using the genetic information encoded in messenger RNA. Consists of two subunits, each composed of ribosomal RNA and proteins
63
Transcription
The process that uses a DNA template to produce a complementary RNA.
64
Translation
The process by which a polypeptide (a string of amino acids joined by peptide bonds) is synthesized from information in codons of messenger RNA
65
Codon
A sequence of three nucleotides in DNA or RNA that codes for an amino acid or a stop signal for protein synthesis.
66
Reading Frame
A series of adjacent non-overlapping, three-base-long sequences (codons) in DNA or RNA that specify a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide. The reading frame is set by the start codon.
67
Start Codon
The AUG triplet in mRNA where protein synthesis begins; codes for the amino acid methionine
68
Stop Codon
Any of three mRNA triplets (UAG, UGA, or UAA) that cause termination of protein synthesis. Also called a termination codon
69
Code Redundancy
Genetic redundancy is a term typically used to describe situations where a given biochemical function is redundantly encoded by two or more genes
70
Code Unambiguity
The genetic code is unambiguous because each triplet specifies only a single amino acid
71
Code Universality
The meaning of the universality of genetic code is that the same genetic code is utilized by all the organisms
72
Mutation
Any permanent change in the hereditary material of an organism (DNA in most organisms, RNA in some viruses). The only source of new alleles in populations
73
Point mutation
A mutation that results in a change in or an insertion or deletion of a single base pair in DNA. Compare with chromosome-level mutation and lateral gene transfer.
74
Missense mutation
A point mutation (change in a single base pair) that changes one amino acid for another within a protein
75
Silent mutation
A point mutation that changes the sequence of a codon without changing the amino acid that is specified.
76
Frameshift mutation
The addition or deletion of one or a few base pairs in a coding sequence that shifts the reading frame of the mRNA.
77
Nonsense mutation
A point mutation (change in a single base pair) that converts an amino-acid-specifying codon into a stop codon.
78
Deletion
In genetics, refers to a loss in a DNA sequence or chromosome
79
Inversion
A mutation in which a DNA sequence or a segment of a chromosome is flipped into the reversed orientation
80
Duplication
In genetics, refers to an additional copy of a DNA sequence or part of a chromosome.
81
Translocation
(1) In plants, the movement of sugars and other organic nutrients through the phloem by bulk flow. (2) A type of mutation in which a piece of a chromosome moves to a nonhomologous chromosome. (3) During translation, the movement of a ribosome down a messenger RNA
82
Blending Inheritance
Blending inheritance is the concept of offspring throwing off tiny contributions of itself that are not the same as their parents

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