Bio 130 Flashcards
STR
Single tandem repeat. Helps differentiate between people’s DNA.
(TTTTTT vs TTTTTTTTTTTTTT)
Homology
Similar traits that come from common ancestor
Analogy
Similar traits that develop separately
Proto-oncogene
regulate cell growth. gene that if TURNED ON leads to cancer
Tumor suppressor genes
regulate cell growth, brakes on cell growth that leads to cancer. genes that if TURNED OFF leads to cancer
Telomere
shortens with each DNA synthesis, causing aging. if telomerase is TURNED ON in non-gonadal cells it leads to cancer
Contact Inhibition
Cells cease growth if they touch each other. if TURNED OFF causes cancer
Anchorage Dependence
requires normal cells to attatch to a solid surface tospread and grow, if TURNED OFF causes cancer
Chargaff’s Rule
Equal # of A & T. Also G & C
Law of Segregation
each gametes contains only a single allele of any given gene
Law of Independent Assortment
alleles of different genes should be passed on independent of each other
Linked Genes
Exceptions to Law of Independent Assortment. Genes close to each other on chromosome often get inherited together
Helicase
“unzips” 2 strands of DNA by breaking H bonds
DNA Polymerase
“builder”, replicates DNA molecules to build new strand of DNA
Primase
“initializer”, makes primers so DNA Polymerase can figure out where to start
Ligase
“glues” DNA fragments together
PCR
method used to make a ton of copies of a specific DNA sample
qPCR
monitors amplification of targeted DNA molecules during PCR. Measures in increases in florescent signals
Western Blot
detects specific PROTEINS in sample by creating antibodies that bind to the protein and show up on the test
Northern Blot
study gene expression by detection of RNA in sample. can see if something’s off in patients by unusual amounts of RNA
Nondisjunction
happens in Anaphase. Chromosomes/chromatids separate unequally
incomplete dominance
dominant and recessive, but dominant cant take over completely. creates new phenotype (ex: red + white= pink)
Codominance
2 dominant. both take up dominance. (ex: spotted pink and white flower)
Ploidy Number
number of copies of chromosomes (2n, 3n, etc.)
mRNA splicing and processing
remove introns, splice exons together
Codon
3 nucleotides in mRNA, code for amino acid
Anticodon
3 nucleotides in tRNA, pair to codon
missense mutation
nucleotide replaced, amino acid changes
frameshift mutation
nucleotide is either inserted or deleted. Everything after is shifted
silent mutation
nucleotide replaced, codes for same amino acid though
nonsense mutation
nucleotide replaced, codes to stop
What charge is DNA
negative
Calorie
amount of energy required to raise temp of 1 gram of water by 1 degree Celius
Calorie formula
(water mass)(temp change)/(mass of food burned)
Carbs
provide energy, some structural
Proteins
function and structure
lipid
store energy
Nucleic acid
build DNA
Isotope
same element, different masses
Macromolecules
Protein, Lipids, Carbohydrates, Nucleic Acids
Saturated fat
single-stranded bonds, causes it to stack and be able to be solid at room temperature
Unsaturated fat
double-stranded bonds, can’t stack because of bend, liquid at room temperature
Covalent Bond
sharing electrons
Hydrophilic particles
attracted to water. charged, ionic, polar
Hydrophobic particles
repelled by water. noncharged, non-polar
If an element is on a far side of the elemental table it is more likely to create an…
ionic bond
ionic bonds
transfer of electrons (ex: NaCl)
Adhesion
water molecules are attracted to other surfaces
Cohesion
water molecules are attracted to each other
High surface tension
hydrogen bonds are strong enough to hold certain objects with small mass without bonds breaking
High standard heat
since hydrogen bonds are harder to break, it takes more energy to change the state of water
Enzymes
proteins that catalyze reactions by lowering their activation energy
Exergonic reaction
energy releasing
Endergonic reaction
energy absorbing
Passive Transport
energy-free/ natural movement of molecules. High to low conc. (facilitated, simple)
Facilitated Diffusion
diffusion happens naturally if provided a channel to move across
Simple Diffusion
only small, nonpolar molecules can cross membrane without help
Active Transport
requires energy to move molecules across. Often moves against conc. gradient (not all the time though)
Hypotonic environment
environment has less solute. water goes into cell.
Hypertonic environment
environment has more solute. water comes out of cell
Isotonic environment
environment and cell have same levels of solute
Fluid-mosaic model
membranes are fluid, things can move in them and are constantly changing
Desmosome Junction
connect cytoskeletons to cell for cell communication
Tight Junction
seal in cells for cell communication
Gap Junction
channel between cells for cell communication
3 stages of Cellular Respiration
Glycolysis, Citric Acid Cycle, Electron Transport Chain
Cellular Respiration
breaking down stored energy in sugar to make useful energy in form of ATP
Glycolysis
breaking down glucose to make Pyruvate (also get NADH and ATP)
Citric Acid Cycle
takes carbon chain. Outputs: NADH, ATP, CO2
Electron Transport Chain
Uses elections to transport H across conc. gradient
Photosynthesis
energy from sun to create glucose
light-dependent reactions
make ATP and NADH to power light-dependent reactions. Photosystem II –> Cytochrome B –> Photosystem II –> NADH
Light-Independent Reactions
take energy from light-dependent reactions to make sugar. Carbon fixation, reduction, regeneration. Makes 6 G3P (2 makes glucose)
Where do homologous chromosomes separate in Meiosis?
Anaphase I
Where do sister chromatids separate in Meiosis?
Anaphase II
Mitosis
replicates your cells. happens in all cells
Meiosis
replicates DNA for reproduction. happens in gonads
Prophase
nuclear envelope disappears, spindle fibers form, chromosomes condense
Metaphase
centrioles, microtubules attach to chromosomes
Anaphase
chromatids separate
Telophase
nucleus reforms, spindles disappear, DNA decondenses
Cytokinesis
two cells are formed
Cell stages
G1, S, G2, M. also G1/G2 checkpoints
Divergent Evolution
related species evolve different characteristics due to different environments or pressures
Convergent Evolution
unrelated species evolve similar characteristics due to similar environments or pressures
Node
common ancestor
Clade
grouping that includes a common ancestor and descendants
Parsimony
simplest explanation for a phenomenon is most likely to be correct
Synapomorphy
shared trait that distinguishes a certain clade from others
Monophyletic
single common ancestor and all its descendants
Paraphyletic
common ancestor and some descendants
G1 Phase
cell just doing its thing
S Phase
Synthesis. DNA replication
G2 Phase
normal cell stuff, prep for mitosis a little
M Phase
Mitosis. cell division
G1 checkpoint
checks for cell size, nutrients, growth factors, and DNA damage.
G0 Phase
If cell doesn’t pass G1 checkpoint it goes to this rest phase
G2 checkpoint
checks for DNA damage, DNA replication completeness. if fail, apoptosis
Apoptosis
programmed cell death
M checkpoint
spindle checkpoint. checks for chromosome attachment to spindle during Metaphase
No mutation
No new alleles are generated by mutation, nor are any genes duplicated or deleted
Random mating
Organisms mate randomly with each other, with no preference for particular groups
No gene flow
Neither individuals nor their gametes enter or exit the population
Very large population size
Population should be effectively infinite in size
No natural selection
All alleles confer equal fitness
Genetic drift
Allele frequencies of population change over generations due to chance
Bottleneck effect
Size of population is greatly reduced because of natural disaster
Founder effect
Genetic drift caused by small group splitting off from main population to find a colony
Law of Superposition
rocks on bottom layer are oldest, top-newest
Violations of Hardy Weinburg
natural selection, mutations, gene flow, genetic drift, non-random mutation
Equations for Hardy Weinburg
pp+2pq+qq=1
p+q=1
Pros and Cons of Sexual Reproduction
Pros: more survivors, flexible with mutations
Cons: less offspring, takes more energy
Pros and Cons of Asexual Reproduction
Pros: More offspring, takes less energy
Cons: less survivors, copies every single trait
Sexual Dimorphism
differences between males and females of a species
Bateman’s Principle
the sex with the greatest parental investment will be more choosy when determining the mate, other sex is flashy and/or competitive
Morphological Species Concept
classify organisms based on physical similarities
Phylogenetic Species Concept
classify species based on shared genetic history
Biological Species Concept
classify species based on ability to mate and reproduce
Ecological Species Concept
classify species based on ecological niche
Reproductive Isolationism
Temporal, Habitat, Behavioral, Mechanical, Gametic, Hybrid Inviability, Hybrid Sterility
Temporal Isolation
mating/flowering at different times/seasons
Habitat Isolation
populations live in different habitats, don’t meet
Behavioral Isolation
little/no sexual attraction
Mechanical Isolation
Genital Structural differences, prevent copulation/pollen transfer
Gametic Isolation
gametes fail t unite in fertilization
Hybrid Inviability
hybrid zygotes fail to develop/reach maturity
Hybrid Sterility
hybrids can’t produce functional gametes
Allopatric speciation
location differences cause populations to evolve into different species
Sympatric speciation
behavioral trait causes difference in species
Symplesiomorphy
shared ancestral traits
Polyphyletic
share traits but not common ancestor
Exponential Growth Rate Equation
N/t=rN
Logistical Growth Rate Equation
N/t=rN(K-N)/K
Density Dependent Limitations
resources, disease, predation, waste, social behaviors
Density Independent
natural disasters, drastic weather changes
Environmental Stochasticity
random and unpredictable changes in the environment
terminal investment
individuals that encounter survival threat compromised future reproductive potential, they will reproduce earlier
K-selected species
How much an environment can hold determines survival
r-selected species
How much a species can reproduce determines survival
Ultimate Cause of Behavior
evolutionary explanation, focus on selective agents and fitness
Proximate Cause of Behavior
mechanistic explanation, focus on how it works on a genetic/physiological explanation
Epigenetic
what proteins you DO make
Genetic
what proteins you CAN make
Environmental
when and how much proteins you make
Intraspecific
relationship between animals of same species
Interspecific
relationship between animals of different species
Constituent Defenses
characteristics that are present with or without predation
Inducible Defenses
characteristics that are only present with predation
Batesian Mimicry
harmless species mimics deadly/poisonous one
Mullerian mimicry
mimicry where both species are harmful
Symbiotic +/+
Mutualism, Cooperation
Symbiotic +/0
commensalism
Symbiotic +/-
predation, parasitism, selfishness, altruism (selflessness)
Symbiotic -/-
competition
Symbiotic -/0
spite
Keystone species
species that affect survival of most other species in niche
Top-down regulation
higher trophic levels affect lower ones
Bottom-up regulation
lower trophic levels affect higher ones
Carbon Isotopes
more negative=more leafy green diet
Nitrogen Isotopes
higher= more protein in diet
Nitrogen Fixation
take atmosphere N2 and “fix” it into NH3. (Lightning, UV radiation, Industrial Chambers)
Nitrification
taking Ammonia (NH3/NH4+) and creating Nitrite (NO2/NO3
Nitrogen Assimilation
Nitrogen is taken up by organisms, change inorganic to organic
Ammonification
return N to soil from organisms, released by bacteria and fungi (decomp)
Denitrification
conversion of Nitrate back into atmosphere N2
Fluxes of Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen Fixation, Nitrification, Denitrification, Ammonification, Nitrogen Assimilation, Consumption
Fluxes of Water Cycle
Evaporation, Condensation, Precipitation, Transpiration, Consumption, Sublimation
Fluxes of Carbon Cycle
Photosynthesis, Cellular respiration, Combustion, Consumption, Decomposition, Diffusion
Vacuole
store water and eliminate waste
Chloroplast
photosynthesis
Mitochondria
creates energy
Lysosome
degrades and gets rid of waste
Rough ER
where proteins are produced
Smooth ER
synthesizes lipids
Ribosomes
actually make the proteins
Golgi Apparatus
ships the products out
Nucleus
stores the DNA
Cytoskeleton
help make up structure of cells