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bio 121 & 122 Flashcards

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1
Q

what is Mean Arterial Pressure?

A

the pressure that drives blood into the tissues

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2
Q

how is MAP calculated?

A

MAP= COxTPR

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3
Q

what are the two pharmacological effects of glucocorticoids?

A

anti-inflammatory effects, immunosuppressant effects

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4
Q

describe the pharmacodynamics of glucocorticoids?

A

they prevent the formation of key chemicals that mediate inflammation

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5
Q

what are the inhibitory neurotransmitters?

A

GABA; glycine

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6
Q

what are the excitatory neurotransmitters?

A

glutamate, aspartate

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7
Q

what is the difference between humoral and cell mediated immunity?

A

humoral immunity = b cells make antibodies

cell mediated immunity = t cells do the killing directly

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8
Q

which WBC is sensitive to allergens and attacks parasites?

A

eosinophils // they attack things that have been marked by antigens

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9
Q

which WBC is highly mobile and the first at the site of injury?

A

neutrophils

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10
Q

which WBCs release chemicals which attract neutrophils to the site?

A

monocytes

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11
Q

which WBCs release histamine and heparin, and cause inflammation?

A

basophils

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12
Q

what are the five types of leukocytes?

A 
eosinophils
neutrophils
monocytes
basophils
lymphocytes
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13
Q

what are the external regulators of heart rate?

A

the medulla oblongata: the cardioaccelaratory centre (SNS) and the cardioinhibitory centre (PNS/vagus nerve)

hormones: adrenaline/noradrenaline

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14
Q

where is the respiratory centre in the brain?

A

in the brainstem: medulla and pons

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15
Q

which brainstem centres generate the respiratory pace?

A

respiratory rhythmicity centres in the medulla oblongata

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16
Q

in which three ways does glucagon work to increase blood glucose levels?

A 
increases glyconolysis (breakdown of glycogen into glucose in liver and skeletal muscle)
increases glyconeogenisis (synthesis and release of glucose by the liver)
increases ketogenesis (breakdown of fat to fatty acids in adipose tissue)
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17
Q

what five things does insulin increase?

A

glucose transport into cells
rate of glucose utilisation/ATP generation
conversion of glucose into glycogen
amino acid absorption and protein synthesis
triglyeride synthesis in adipose tissue

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18
Q

where is glucagon released from?

A

alpha cells in the pancreatic islets

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19
Q

what kind of hormone is glucagon?

A

peptide hormone

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20
Q

what controls the release of glucagon?

A

decreased blood glucose levels

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21
Q

what is the function of cortisol?

A

anti-inflammatory; affects glucose metabolism

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22
Q

where is cortisol released from?

A

the adrenal cortex

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23
Q

what controls the release of cortisol?

A

stimulated by ACTH

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24
Q

what kind of hormone is cortisol?

A

steroid hormone (glucocorticoid)

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25
Q

where is the sinoatrial node located?

A

in the posterior wall of the right atrium

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26
Q

what does the moderator band do?

A

conducts the impulse from the bundle branches to the papillary muscles of the right ventricle

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27
Q

what does the QRS complex on an ECG represent?

A

ventricular depolarisation

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28
Q

what hormone is released by adipose tissue, and what does it do?

A

leptin targets the hypothalamus to suppress the appetite

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29
Q

what are the cells of the pancreatic islets and what type of hormones does each produce?

A

alpha cells: glucagon
beta cells: insulin
delta cells: GH-IH
f cells: pancreatic polypeptide (PP)

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30
Q

what are the chemical synapses that release actylcholine called?

A

cholinergic synapses

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31
Q

what are the four functions of adrenaline?

A

increased cardiac activity
increased blood pressure
increased glycogen breakdown
increased blood glucose levels

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32
Q

where is adrenaline released from?

A

the adrenal medulla

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33
Q

what controls the release of adrenaline?

A

sympathetic innervation by the hypothalmus

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34
Q

what kind of hormone is adrenaline?

A

amine hormone

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35
Q

what is the function of aldosterone?

A

increases the reabsorption of Na+ and water

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36
Q

where is aldosterone released from?

A

the adrenal cortex

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37
Q

what controls the release of aldosterone?

A

angiotensin II; also elevated blood K+ or fall in blood Na+

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38
Q

what inhibits the release of aldosterone?

A

ANP and BNP

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39
Q

what kind of hormone is aldosterone?

A

a steroid hormone

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40
Q

what are glucocorticoids?

A

steroid hormones that effect glucose metabolism

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41
Q

what are the glucocorticoids and where are they produced?

A

cortisol, corticosterone are produced in the adrenal cortex

cortisone is made in the liver from circulating cortisol

42
Q

what is a synergistic interaction between hormones?

A

hormones act together and have an increased effect greater than the sum of their parts
eg. glucagon and cortisol and adrenaline together greatly increase blood glucose levels

43
Q

trace the path of an action potential through the conducting system

A

sinoatrial node -> internodal pathways -> atrioventricular node -> AV bundle -> bundle branches ->purkinje fibres

44
Q

describe how arteries change on the path from the heart to the capillaries

A 
elastic arteries near the heart (able to absorb more pressure) are larger and the tunica media has many elastic fibres and fewer muscle
muscular arteries (further from heart) = most arteries. medium sized with many muscle cells. they keep the blood flowing
45
Q

what are first messengers and second messengers?

A

first messenger: hormone binding to protein receptor in cell membrane activates second messenger.
second messenger is in cytoplasm; changes rates of metabolic reactions

46
Q

what are the little branches across the subarachnoid space called?

A

arachnoid trabeculae

47
Q

where is the heart positioned in the body?

A

posterior to the sternum, in the mediastinum between the two pleural cavities, in the pericardial sac

48
Q

what are the outer dura mater and the inner dura mater also known as?

A

outer dura mater = endosteal layer

inner dura mater = meningeal layer

49
Q

give an example of where each type of cartilage is found

A

hyaline: trachea, larynx, ribs
fibrocartilage: intervertebral discs, joint capsules, ligaments
elastic: ear, epiglottis, larynx

50
Q

what is the role of connective tissue fibres in the epicardium?

A

physical support
distributes contractile forces
prevents overexpansion
elasticity - helps heart return to its original size and shape

51
Q

describe the form of an osteon

A

lamellae form a series of concentric rings around a central canal that holds small blood vessels

52
Q

what are the four mechanisms of intercellular communication?

A

direct
paracrine
endocrine
synaptic

53
Q

what is another name for the epidural space?

A

the dural sinus

54
Q

name the three different cartilage types?

A

hyaline cartilage
elastic cartilage
fibrocartilage

55
Q

how long does the cardiac cycle last?

A

about 0.8 seconds

56
Q

what are the functional divisions of the respiratory system? which parts of the lung mark the boundary?

A

conducting zone from the nasal cavity to the terminal bronchioles
respiratory zone: respiratory bronchioles and alveoli

57
Q

what is the connective tissue layer surrounding the muscle?

A

epimysium

58
Q

what are the two regions of a nephron?

A

renal corpuscle

renal tubule

59
Q

which hormones are necessary for normal growth and development?

A 
insulin
parathyroid hormone
calcitonin
calcitriol
thyroid hormones
reproductive hormones
60
Q

what is the network of arteries that transports hormones from the hypothalamus to the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland?

A

the hypophyseal portal system

61
Q

define regulatory hormone

A

a special hormone released by the hypothalamus, controls endocrine cells in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland

62
Q

what tissue or organ is targeted by the hormone ACTH?

A

adrenocorticotropic hormone targets the adrenal cortex

63
Q

what is the main cell found in the alveoli?

A

type I pneumocyte (squamous epithelial cell)

64
Q

what does osteolysis help to regulate?

A

calcium and phosphate ions

65
Q

what are the types of cholinergic receptors?

A

muscarinic, nicotinic

66
Q

which medications are a risk factor for fractures? how/why?

A

corticosteroids (long term) - inhibits osteoblasts

antacids - reduce calcium absorption

67
Q

what are the two classes of antithrombotics?

A

antiplatelet aggregators and anticoagulants (stop fibrin formation)

68
Q

what is pharmacodynamics?

A

how drugs act on the body

69
Q

what are the primary drug targets? (regulatory proteins)

A 
RICE:
receptors
ion channels
carrier molecules (transporters)
enzymes
70
Q

how do drugs work on carrier molecules?

A

they block them (eg. SSRIs)

71
Q

how do drugs work on enzymes?

A

competitive inhibition - drug and substrate compete for active site on enzyme
non-competitive inhibition - drug binds to enzyme and destroys enzyme or distorts its shape

72
Q

what drugs work by non-competitive inhibtion?

A

nerve gas/sarin gas

irreversible, usually non therapeutic

asprin is probably the only therapeutic example (anti-platelet action)

73
Q

how do drugs act on ion channels?

A

bind to receptor and open or close channel

or

physical blocking (local anaesthetics block sodium channels)

74
Q

define neoplasia. what are the two types of neoplasia?

A

abnormal growth of tissue

can be benign (non-invasive) -oma

or malignant (invasive) -carcinoma, - sarcoma

75
Q

-plasia

A

growth

76
Q

pathophysiology of angina

A

insufficient coronary blood flow (ischemia) -> hypoxia -> accumulation of lactic acid and other chemicals -> pain (CNS)

77
Q

define ischemia

A

restriction in blood supply to the tissues, causing a shortage of oxygen and other nutrients

78
Q

GTN: drug class?

A

organic nitrates - relaxes smooth muscle

79
Q

what are labile, stable and permanent cells?

A

labile - continually dividing ie epithelial cells

stable cells - low level of division ie. liver, kidney, glandular tissue

permanent - neurons, myocardial cells, skeletal muscle cells

80
Q

what is thrombosis?

A

the formation of a blood clot in an unbroken vessel

81
Q

what is the formula for measuring BMI?

A

weight divided by (height squared)

82
Q

what are the different classes of antibodies?

A

IgM - first one made
IgG - ‘memory’ antibody, can cross placenta
IgA - on mucosal surfaces
IgE - allergy/parasites

83
Q

what are three ways to diagnose MI?

A

ECG

troponin levels (Tn I) - more troponin, more damage

creatine kinase (non specific)

84
Q

what are the symptoms of MI?

A

severe, prolonged, crushing pain
cool, clammy skin, sweating
pallor, dyspnoea

85
Q

what is the difference between STEMI and non STEMI MIs?

A

STEMI - complete blockage of coronary artery

non STEMI - partial obstruction - tissue damage not as bad

86
Q

what class of drug is metformin? what are its main pharmacological effects?

A

oral hypoglycaemic (biguanides)

decreased synthesis of glucose
increased insulin sensitivity

87
Q

what are the cardinal signs of inflammation?

A 
redness
warmth
swelling
pain
loss of function
88
Q

what’s the difference between exudate and transudate?

A

transudate has no/low proteins in it

89
Q

what three things about the nature of the absorbing surface effect drug absorption?

A

number of cell membrane layers

surface area

blood supply

90
Q

what is pharmacokinetics?

A 
the study of how the body acts on drugs:
absorption
distributions
metabolism
excretion
91
Q

how much efficacy do antagonists have?

A

zero efficacy - it’s a blocker

92
Q

what does agonist potency depend on?

A

affinity and efficacy

93
Q

what are the four functions of the liver?

A

detoxification/removal of wastes
normal metabolism
storage of vitamins, minerals and glycogen
synthesis of plasma proteins, lipoproteins and bile

94
Q

what do the pancreatic juices do?

A

neutralise acid from the stomach and contain pancreatic enzymes

95
Q

what are the monosaccharides?

A

glucose
fructose
galactose

96
Q

what are the disaccharides?

A

sucrose
lactose
maltose

97
Q

what are the four primary tissue types in the body?

A

connective tissue
epithelial tissue
muscle tissue
neural tissue

98
Q

what are the three layers of the meninges called?

A

dura mater
arachnoid mater
[subarachnoid space (CSF)]
pia mater

99
Q

which branch of the ANS has long pre-ganglionic fibres and short post-ganglionic?

A

parasympathetic

100
Q

how is the autonomic nervous system divided?

A

sympathetic nervous system

parasympathetic nervous system

nursing cards (13 decks)

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