bio 121 & 122 Flashcards
1
Q
what is Mean Arterial Pressure?
A
the pressure that drives blood into the tissues
2
Q
how is MAP calculated?
A
MAP= COxTPR
3
Q
what are the two pharmacological effects of glucocorticoids?
A
anti-inflammatory effects, immunosuppressant effects
4
Q
describe the pharmacodynamics of glucocorticoids?
A
they prevent the formation of key chemicals that mediate inflammation
5
Q
what are the inhibitory neurotransmitters?
A
GABA; glycine
6
Q
what are the excitatory neurotransmitters?
A
glutamate, aspartate
7
Q
what is the difference between humoral and cell mediated immunity?
A
humoral immunity = b cells make antibodies
cell mediated immunity = t cells do the killing directly
8
Q
which WBC is sensitive to allergens and attacks parasites?
A
eosinophils // they attack things that have been marked by antigens
9
Q
which WBC is highly mobile and the first at the site of injury?
A
neutrophils
10
Q
which WBCs release chemicals which attract neutrophils to the site?
A
monocytes
11
Q
which WBCs release histamine and heparin, and cause inflammation?
A
basophils
12
Q
what are the five types of leukocytes?
A
eosinophils neutrophils monocytes basophils lymphocytes
13
Q
what are the external regulators of heart rate?
A
the medulla oblongata: the cardioaccelaratory centre (SNS) and the cardioinhibitory centre (PNS/vagus nerve)
hormones: adrenaline/noradrenaline
14
Q
where is the respiratory centre in the brain?
A
in the brainstem: medulla and pons
15
Q
which brainstem centres generate the respiratory pace?
A
respiratory rhythmicity centres in the medulla oblongata
16
Q
in which three ways does glucagon work to increase blood glucose levels?
A
increases glyconolysis (breakdown of glycogen into glucose in liver and skeletal muscle) increases glyconeogenisis (synthesis and release of glucose by the liver) increases ketogenesis (breakdown of fat to fatty acids in adipose tissue)
17
Q
what five things does insulin increase?
A
glucose transport into cells
rate of glucose utilisation/ATP generation
conversion of glucose into glycogen
amino acid absorption and protein synthesis
triglyeride synthesis in adipose tissue
18
Q
where is glucagon released from?
A
alpha cells in the pancreatic islets
19
Q
what kind of hormone is glucagon?
A
peptide hormone
20
Q
what controls the release of glucagon?
A
decreased blood glucose levels
21
Q
what is the function of cortisol?
A
anti-inflammatory; affects glucose metabolism
22
Q
where is cortisol released from?
A
the adrenal cortex
23
Q
what controls the release of cortisol?
A
stimulated by ACTH
24
Q
what kind of hormone is cortisol?
A
steroid hormone (glucocorticoid)
25
where is the sinoatrial node located?
in the posterior wall of the right atrium
26
what does the moderator band do?
conducts the impulse from the bundle branches to the papillary muscles of the right ventricle
27
what does the QRS complex on an ECG represent?
ventricular depolarisation
28
what hormone is released by adipose tissue, and what does it do?
leptin targets the hypothalamus to suppress the appetite
29
what are the cells of the pancreatic islets and what type of hormones does each produce?
alpha cells: glucagon
beta cells: insulin
delta cells: GH-IH
f cells: pancreatic polypeptide (PP)
30
what are the chemical synapses that release actylcholine called?
cholinergic synapses
31
what are the four functions of adrenaline?
increased cardiac activity
increased blood pressure
increased glycogen breakdown
increased blood glucose levels
32
where is adrenaline released from?
the adrenal medulla
33
what controls the release of adrenaline?
sympathetic innervation by the hypothalmus
34
what kind of hormone is adrenaline?
amine hormone
35
what is the function of aldosterone?
increases the reabsorption of Na+ and water
36
where is aldosterone released from?
the adrenal cortex
37
what controls the release of aldosterone?
angiotensin II; also elevated blood K+ or fall in blood Na+
38
what inhibits the release of aldosterone?
ANP and BNP
39
what kind of hormone is aldosterone?
a steroid hormone
40
what are glucocorticoids?
steroid hormones that effect glucose metabolism
41
what are the glucocorticoids and where are they produced?
cortisol, corticosterone are produced in the adrenal cortex
| cortisone is made in the liver from circulating cortisol
42
what is a synergistic interaction between hormones?
hormones act together and have an increased effect greater than the sum of their parts
eg. glucagon and cortisol and adrenaline together greatly increase blood glucose levels
43
trace the path of an action potential through the conducting system
sinoatrial node -> internodal pathways -> atrioventricular node -> AV bundle -> bundle branches ->purkinje fibres
44
describe how arteries change on the path from the heart to the capillaries
```
elastic arteries near the heart (able to absorb more pressure) are larger and the tunica media has many elastic fibres and fewer muscle
muscular arteries (further from heart) = most arteries. medium sized with many muscle cells. they keep the blood flowing
```
45
what are first messengers and second messengers?
first messenger: hormone binding to protein receptor in cell membrane activates second messenger.
second messenger is in cytoplasm; changes rates of metabolic reactions
46
what are the little branches across the subarachnoid space called?
arachnoid trabeculae
47
where is the heart positioned in the body?
posterior to the sternum, in the mediastinum between the two pleural cavities, in the pericardial sac
48
what are the outer dura mater and the inner dura mater also known as?
outer dura mater = endosteal layer
| inner dura mater = meningeal layer
49
give an example of where each type of cartilage is found
hyaline: trachea, larynx, ribs
fibrocartilage: intervertebral discs, joint capsules, ligaments
elastic: ear, epiglottis, larynx
50
what is the role of connective tissue fibres in the epicardium?
physical support
distributes contractile forces
prevents overexpansion
elasticity - helps heart return to its original size and shape
51
describe the form of an osteon
lamellae form a series of concentric rings around a central canal that holds small blood vessels
52
what are the four mechanisms of intercellular communication?
direct
paracrine
endocrine
synaptic
53
what is another name for the epidural space?
the dural sinus
54
name the three different cartilage types?
hyaline cartilage
elastic cartilage
fibrocartilage
55
how long does the cardiac cycle last?
about 0.8 seconds
56
what are the functional divisions of the respiratory system? which parts of the lung mark the boundary?
conducting zone from the nasal cavity to the terminal bronchioles
respiratory zone: respiratory bronchioles and alveoli
57
what is the connective tissue layer surrounding the muscle?
epimysium
58
what are the two regions of a nephron?
renal corpuscle
| renal tubule
59
which hormones are necessary for normal growth and development?
```
insulin
parathyroid hormone
calcitonin
calcitriol
thyroid hormones
reproductive hormones
```
60
what is the network of arteries that transports hormones from the hypothalamus to the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland?
the hypophyseal portal system
61
define regulatory hormone
a special hormone released by the hypothalamus, controls endocrine cells in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland
62
what tissue or organ is targeted by the hormone ACTH?
adrenocorticotropic hormone targets the adrenal cortex
63
what is the main cell found in the alveoli?
type I pneumocyte (squamous epithelial cell)
64
what does osteolysis help to regulate?
calcium and phosphate ions
65
what are the types of cholinergic receptors?
muscarinic, nicotinic
66
which medications are a risk factor for fractures? how/why?
corticosteroids (long term) - inhibits osteoblasts
| antacids - reduce calcium absorption
67
what are the two classes of antithrombotics?
antiplatelet aggregators and anticoagulants (stop fibrin formation)
68
what is pharmacodynamics?
how drugs act on the body
69
what are the primary drug targets? (regulatory proteins)
```
RICE:
receptors
ion channels
carrier molecules (transporters)
enzymes
```
70
how do drugs work on carrier molecules?
they block them (eg. SSRIs)
71
how do drugs work on enzymes?
competitive inhibition - drug and substrate compete for active site on enzyme
non-competitive inhibition - drug binds to enzyme and destroys enzyme or distorts its shape
72
what drugs work by non-competitive inhibtion?
nerve gas/sarin gas
irreversible, usually non therapeutic
asprin is probably the only therapeutic example (anti-platelet action)
73
how do drugs act on ion channels?
bind to receptor and open or close channel
or
physical blocking (local anaesthetics block sodium channels)
74
define neoplasia. what are the two types of neoplasia?
abnormal growth of tissue
can be benign (non-invasive) -oma
or malignant (invasive) -carcinoma, - sarcoma
75
-plasia
growth
76
pathophysiology of angina
insufficient coronary blood flow (ischemia) -> hypoxia -> accumulation of lactic acid and other chemicals -> pain (CNS)
77
define ischemia
restriction in blood supply to the tissues, causing a shortage of oxygen and other nutrients
78
GTN: drug class?
organic nitrates - relaxes smooth muscle
79
what are labile, stable and permanent cells?
labile - continually dividing ie epithelial cells
stable cells - low level of division ie. liver, kidney, glandular tissue
permanent - neurons, myocardial cells, skeletal muscle cells
80
what is thrombosis?
the formation of a blood clot in an unbroken vessel
81
what is the formula for measuring BMI?
weight divided by (height squared)
82
what are the different classes of antibodies?
IgM - first one made
IgG - 'memory' antibody, can cross placenta
IgA - on mucosal surfaces
IgE - allergy/parasites
83
what are three ways to diagnose MI?
ECG
troponin levels (Tn I) - more troponin, more damage
creatine kinase (non specific)
84
what are the symptoms of MI?
severe, prolonged, crushing pain
cool, clammy skin, sweating
pallor, dyspnoea
85
what is the difference between STEMI and non STEMI MIs?
STEMI - complete blockage of coronary artery
non STEMI - partial obstruction - tissue damage not as bad
86
what class of drug is metformin? what are its main pharmacological effects?
oral hypoglycaemic (biguanides)
decreased synthesis of glucose
increased insulin sensitivity
87
what are the cardinal signs of inflammation?
```
redness
warmth
swelling
pain
loss of function
```
88
what's the difference between exudate and transudate?
transudate has no/low proteins in it
89
what three things about the nature of the absorbing surface effect drug absorption?
number of cell membrane layers
surface area
blood supply
90
what is pharmacokinetics?
```
the study of how the body acts on drugs:
absorption
distributions
metabolism
excretion
```
91
how much efficacy do antagonists have?
zero efficacy - it's a blocker
92
what does agonist potency depend on?
affinity and efficacy
93
what are the four functions of the liver?
detoxification/removal of wastes
normal metabolism
storage of vitamins, minerals and glycogen
synthesis of plasma proteins, lipoproteins and bile
94
what do the pancreatic juices do?
neutralise acid from the stomach and contain pancreatic enzymes
95
what are the monosaccharides?
glucose
fructose
galactose
96
what are the disaccharides?
sucrose
lactose
maltose
97
what are the four primary tissue types in the body?
connective tissue
epithelial tissue
muscle tissue
neural tissue
98
what are the three layers of the meninges called?
dura mater
arachnoid mater
[subarachnoid space (CSF)]
pia mater
99
which branch of the ANS has long pre-ganglionic fibres and short post-ganglionic?
parasympathetic
100
how is the autonomic nervous system divided?
sympathetic nervous system
| parasympathetic nervous system
