berkman and plutzer - evolution, creationism and the battle to control America's classrooms

Question 1

intro

Answer 1

• Study of teaching of evolution and of creationism in public schools in the US [1]
• Scientists are puzzled as to why there is still a “war” over evolution and so many educated Americans support the creationist viewpoint, even candidates running for Presidency [1]
• Council of the Association for the Advancement of Science 1922 viewpoint: evolution is backed up by scientific evidence, and more evidence is coming to light even now [2]
• ‘Today, scientists ask this: How is it, then, 150 years after The Origin of Species, 100 years after the birth of modern genetics, and 50 years after scientists made a major effort to rework textbooks to their liking, that teaching evolution in public schools remains a controversial subject?’ [3]
• It is not just a matter of disagreement between science and religion but it is related to politics – to the American democracy specifically [3]
• Political scientists have to ask themselves who should decide what is put into the education curriculum and who should decide this [3-4]

Question 2

chapter 1 - scopes trial

Answer 2

o Substantive debate – evidence for evolution
o Procedural debate – concerned democracy, should non-experts set curriculum
o Debate about autonomy of teachers

Question 3

1 - political struggle

Answer 3

• The battle between creationism and evolution is a ‘political struggle over who decides, a question central to democratic politics. Experts seek influence in the political battle to write state level standards.’ (31)

Question 4

1 - who has authority?

Answer 4

• Arguments for who has authority
  o ‘the protection of civil liberties must always trump the majority’ (10)
  o experts decide
  o educators should decide

Question 5

1 - history of the debate: Scopes

Answer 5

o Tennessee vs. Scopes and the first wave of the anti-evolution movement
♣ ‘Even though the passage of laws banning evolution was restricted to southern states, the introduction of anti-evolution legislation and mobilization of anti-evolution groups was a national phenomenon. William Jennings Bryan and others in the anti-evolution movement spoke at hundreds of venues during the 1920s in the north as well as the south, in cities as well as the countryside, on college campuses as well as in churches.’ (16)
♣ debate slowed during Great Depression

Question 6

1 - history of the debate: Cold War

Answer 6

o The Cold War and the re-awakening of anti-evolutionism
♣ USSR launch Sputnik
♣ ‘One consequence of Sputnik was a 1958 National Science Foundation- sponsored review of the American biology curriculum. This led to the distribution of new teaching materials and the 1961 publication of new textbooks written by the nation’s leading scientists under the auspices of the Biological Science Curriculum Study (BSCS). The three BSCS textbooks were widely adopted and quickly captured half the textbook market (Larson 2003).’ (17)

Question 7

1 - history of debate: US federal courts

Answer 7

o US Federal courts and the narrowing of the democratic space
♣ ‘In effect, the Court said that state governments are free to determine their science curricula and select their own textbooks, as long as they do not favor a particular religious viewpoint when they do so. Further, the majority concluded that efforts to ban evolu- tion entirely necessarily stemmed from just such a particular religious viewpoint. This was a major defeat for those opposed to evolution in the public schools. Just as evolution was spreading through the adoption of new textbooks, the Supreme Court invalidated laws that would ban evolution entirely.’ (19)

Question 8

chapter 2 - survey, actual statistics

Answer 8

-	Survey and Research Evaluation Laboratory at Virginia Commonwealth University (VCU) 2005 vs. CCD 1987
o	Creationism only 
♣	VCU – 21%
♣	CCD – 11%
o	Combination 	
♣	VCU - 43%
♣	CCD - 68%
o	Evolution only 
♣	VCU – 15%
o	CCD – 11%

Question 9

chapter 2 - survey, conclusions

Answer 9

o ‘Taken as a whole, the trend data suggest that most Americans would like public schools to “teach the controversy” by providing both sides of the argument. However, the percentage of Americans endorsing this centrist position appears to have fallen sharply as the percentage supporting evolution-only has increased at least 50%, whereas the percentage supporting alternatives has more than doubled.’ (35)

Question 10

chapter 2 - survey, favouring of creationism

Answer 10

• percentage favouring teaching of creationism and evolution 1998-2006
  o ‘On average, about 38% of Americans seem prepared to replace scientific discussions of human origins with biblically inspired alternatives.’ (36)

Question 11

chapter 2 - conclusions strengthened by the survey

Answer 11

• three important conclusions are strengthened by examining both sets of polls. During the 1999– 2005 period:
  o ‘Over two-thirds of the public endorse teaching creationism (either along with or instead of evolution). Thus, a supermajority expresses opposition to Supreme Court decisions banning this practice.’
  o ‘Every survey shows that anti-evolutionists outnumber pro-evolutionists.’
  o ‘The highest recorded support for teaching evolution and only evolution is 35%, very far from a majority. Most polls show even lower support. We will show in Chapters 4 and 6 that all state standards endorse evolution, although with varying degrees of comprehensiveness and rigor. Therefore, no more than one-third of U.S. citizens endorse the policy that is actually in place in all fifty states.’ (39)

Question 12

2 - what do the conclusions of the survey show us?

Answer 12

• ‘These three conclusions are critical to understanding evolution politics and policy in the United States. More fundamentally, they describe a situation in which the people appear at first glance to be largely irrelevant to the policy-making process. Across the whole country, we see a mismatch between public opinion and policy. Of course, education is a state and local responsibility.’ (40)

Question 13

2 - potential limits to the poll

Answer 13

• why should the polls that show that 15-20% of the public wants only evolution be taken with a pinch of salt?
  o ‘First, it might be argued that all of these polls are subject to bias stemming from the way the questions were worded or from other cues provided in the survey interview. Second, it is possible that the public is so poorly informed about the topic that most individuals are answering the question in a thoughtless manner that makes the results something less than “public opinion.” Both of these arguments are advanced by George Bishop in his Illusion of Public Opinion (2004), and the latter argument is made by David W. Moore in The Opinion Makers (2008).’ (40)

Question 14

2 - the issue of bias

Answer 14

o need to put polls in their context – what was the overall theme of the poll and how does this impact their views on evolution?
o Split ballot polls – deliberately written to induce bias

Question 15

2 - pew 2005 survey re. preferences for teaching

Answer 15

scientists agree that humans evolved

• 32% teach creationism only
• 39% of those who teach both
• 20% of those who say evolution only

scientists do not agree that humans evolved

• 49% of creationism only
• 25% of combination
• 14% of evolution only

Question 16

2 - why would a Biblical literalist endorse teaching evolution

Answer 16

• church-state relations and civil liberties
• ‘The ACLU and other civil libertarians have consistently argued that there is nothing wrong with believing in the teachings of the Bible, so long as those beliefs are not implicitly or explicitly endorsed by government institutions such as schools. Fundamentalist Christians who find this argument persuasive might logically believe that God created Adam and Eve roughly 6,000 years ago but not wish to have that story taught in high school science classes. On the other side of the spectrum, citizens who accept evolution but are not concerned about the introduction of religion in public schools might find proposals for “equal time” to be quite reasonable.’

Question 17

2 - 2000 survey, Daniel Yankelovich Group for the liberal advocacy group PFAW

Answer 17

PFAW 2000

• 29% of public want creationism taught in science as a ‘scientific theory’
• 20% support teaching evolution
• 46% support teaching of creationism as a ‘belief’

but suggests minority support currently policies, 30% support creationism as science

Question 18

2 - conclusions

Answer 18

o ‘we found considerable evidence that respondents have logical reasons for the answers that they give. Respondents who believe in a fairly literal interpretation of the Bible tend to be skeptical of evolution and endorse the introduction of creationism into America’s classrooms. But among this group, their policy preferences are tempered if they show support for the separation of church and state on other issues.’ (62)
o ‘On the other hand, there is mixed evidence for whether scientific understanding plays a major role in forging individuals’ policy attitudes. There is some evidence that citizens who are better informed about what “evolution” means – that humans and apes share a com- mon ancestry and not that humans evolved from apes – are more supportive of evolution in the classroom. Yet, most creationists under- stand that there is a scientific consensus regarding evolution, and they nevertheless reject its inclusion in the curriculum.’ (62)

Question 19

3 - eschatological beliefs reinforcing division

Answer 19

• in general, anti-evolutionism was most common amongst fundamentalists
• Origin of Species = still controversial
• Eschatological beliefs reinforced divisions
  o Different interpretations of revelation – postmillenialists vs. premillenialists
• Postmillenialists
  o 1000 year period of heaven on earth – defeat of anti-Christ will soon be fulfilled
  o we can help this through good works
  o supported evolution – it brings progress
• premillenialists
  o JC will return before 1000 year reign after battle with evil - Against evolution – Bible is inerrant

Question 20

3 - support for creationism and evolution

Answer 20

90% of doctrinally conservative pros
58% of mainline prot
57%of RCC
38% of atheists

(UNC)

Question 21

3 - stats on evolution by education

Answer 21

definitely false 
38% - less than high school 
42% high school 
27% college 
18% graduate degree

definitely true 
9% less than high school
10% HS
college - 26%
grad - 28%

(GSS)

Question 22

3 - link between views and environment, conclusions

Answer 22

• ‘In this chapter, we have shown that pro-evolution support is most prevalent among those who are not deeply involved in organized religion, among those with graduate degrees, and among those who live in urban and suburban communities. Highly urbanized states with many professionals and with few conservative Protestants – Massachusetts, for example – show the greatest support for teach- ing evolution, and only evolution, in the nation’s classrooms. The less metropolitan states in which doctrinally conservative churches are prevalent tend also to have fewer highly educated citizens. Public opinion in these states, such as Alabama and Mississippi, generally supports the introduction of creationism into the public school curriculum.’ (90)

Question 23

4 - Ohio, indiana, kansas

Answer 23

• Ohio Department of Education ‘did not think it necessary that its public-school students learn about biological evolution’ [93]
o ‘Ohio treats evolution, wrote Lerner, “as if it were not proper conversation in polite company” (2000b, 16).’ (94)
• Kansas students have the lowest form of education on this matter due to political movements affecting the education curriculum
• Indiana by contrast, has one of the most straight forward educations on evolution, but Gross warns this may be challenged by prominent political moves [94] – it has come to be that it no longer recommends the study of evolution

Question 24

4 - science as an institution

Answer 24

• ‘Creation science and especially intelligent design are essentially modifications by opponents of evolution in response to changes in the legal environment (Scott 1994).’ [98]
• Normally the public is not opposed to expert opinion but in the case of scientists discussing evolution and the public, this is not the case [98]
• Scientists ‘see the evolution debate more broadly in terms of its implications for the prestige, power, and autonomy of science as a social institution.’ [100]

Question 25

6 - link between experience of teacher and evolution

Answer 25

• more experienced teachers will more likely have the confidence to engage with the controversy surrounding evolution

Question 26

7 - credit hours and teaching of evolution

Answer 26

• ‘Looking first at the time devoted to evolution, we see that teachers who earned more than 40 credit hours in biology tend to teach 2 additional hours of evolution compared with teachers in the low- est category (two times the slope of 1.08). Earned degrees in science seem not to matter, but we see a very large impact of having completed a course in evolution, with those who completed such a specialized course teaching an additional 3.4 hours of evolutionary biology – an increase of 25% compared with the average teacher in the nation.’ (178)

Question 27

7 - impact of personal views on teaching with quote from teacher from Florida

Answer 27

o 47% = theistic evolution
o 31% - organic evolution
o 14% - young earth position

o ‘Evolutionary Theory is one of my passions. I leisurely read about evolution (Gould, Wilson, Dawkins, etc.) and incorporate it into my teaching…With the argument I present, it is very difficult for students to not accept evolution.’ (193)
o shows attempt to persuade children to adhere to evolutionary beliefs

Question 28

8 - link between personal belief and school district

Answer 28

young earth creationism

• 4% cosmopolitan
• 37% most traditional

theistic evo

• 39% cosmo
• 53%. most traditional

organic evolution

• 57% cosmo
• 11% traditional

people are impacted by their environment

• traditional comm employ less biologically professional
• personal belief conforms with majority in environ

Question 29

9 - persuading vs. teaching

Answer 29

• ‘About one-fifth see their goal as to not merely teach the standards and textbook material, but to go out of their way to champion the idea that evolution is a scientific fact – in effect, that there is no “controversy” to teach. In stark contrast, nearly one-fifth undermine the conclusions of evolution biology by explicitly telling students that they believe (or “many prominent scientists believe”) that creationism or intelligent design is a “valid scientific alternative” to evolution. From a political perspective, this suggests that establishment science and anti-evolution opponents have each managed to control about one in five classrooms in the nation’s public schools.’ (220-1)

Question 30

9 - reverse of 1920s

Answer 30

• importance of biological training for science teachers may become more important
• anti-evolution side emphasises academic freedom of teachers
  o pressure comes mostly from administrators
• reverse of how it was in the 1920s
  o John Scopes emphasised academic freedom
  o Anti-evolutionists like Bryan emphasised following employers
  o Roles have been inverted today

Question 31

normative question and 2 broad empirical questions

Answer 31

• They highlight a key normative question: Who should govern the nation’s public schools and determine what students should learn?
• we explore two broad empirical questions: How is education policy made in each of the fifty states? How is policy actually implemented in each of the thousands of individual classrooms throughout the nation?

Question 32

1 - democracy and activism

Answer 32

• Do and should teachers have a degree of autonomy in what they teach?
• In a democracy the people should decide what is taught - religious beliefs however often drive majority decisions
• Plato presents the first argument that protection of civil liberties should always trump the majority
• Activists on both sides have substantially stepped up their activities in the last decade or so. Among young earth creationists, the opening of the Creation Museum in Kentucky and the launch of the syndicated television show Creation Hour are just the most recent efforts to widely promote “creation science”8 and criticize evolutionary biology

Question 33

conclusions of chapter 2

Answer 33

• they argue that teachers are ‘street level bureaucrats’ to capture the importance of a range of public employees charged with implementing policies but who are granted significant discretion when doing so
• the battle is not simply one of ideas - Schools are public entities, enmeshed in a culture and history of local control, created and increasingly controlled by their states.
• most americans would like the “controversy” to be taught
• every survey shows that anti-evolutionists outnumber pro - evolutionists - No matter how the questions are asked, no matter the theme of the survey, no matter the sponsor of the survey, we see again and again evidence that large majorities of Americans want to see creationism taught in public schools.

Question 34

when are anti-evolution efforts most likely to succeed

Answer 34

• Anti-evolution efforts are most likely to succeed in states with large numbers of doctrinally conservative Protestants, whereas evolution supporters will have support in states with large numbers of scientists and professionals.- link to Weber
• the second important reason why evolution standards in particular might reflect public opinion is that evolution is embedded within broader cultural conflicts in American politics that play out over issues like same-sex marriage and abortion.

Question 35

asocial movement and political scientists

Answer 35

• ASOCIAL MOVEMENT - the earliest political opposition to evolution was transformed into a social movement. anti-evolutionism became institutionalized. both sides have sustained huge organisations with talks, books, public relation offices, media attention - This conflict has been further institutionalized within the American party system. We have noted that three serious Republican candidates for president in 2008 acknowledged that they do not accept evolution. On the other side, anti-fundamentalism has found a home in the Democratic Party. Thus, as the two major political parties have become increasingly polarized along social, cultural, and religious lines, the issue has mapped comfortably onto this cleavage. – POLITICAL SCIENTISTS

Question 36

decentralised nature of US education

Answer 36

• A second factor promoting continuity of the evolution–creation war is the highly decentralized system of public education in the United States. America’s federal system places responsibility for public education with each of the fifty states, almost all of which engage in second-order devolution by giving substantial autonomy to the more than 10,000 school districts that directly govern and finance public
• the fuel for the fire seems to be this fear that religion will crumble out of existence
• ultimately it will lie with the teachers and with society’s need to not let religion be attacked - it is more than just a question of education at this stage

Question 37

analysis - political scientists

Answer 37

• several years of research
• spoke to scientists as well as those in schools
• as political scientists they feel justified in contributing to the political side of the debate - objective in their scientific views, not entirely convinced by either side - we rely on the best practices of political science, which implies a disinterested search for evidence-based answers to our questions. Disinterested, in this sense, does not mean that we do not care about our findings; quite the contrary. We each have school-age children and care deeply about science education in our nation’s public schools. But we have done our best to follow the evidence and report it objectively, even when that evidence has proven to be disturbing or has not confirmed our initial hypotheses. – a perhaps slightly obvious bias

Question 38

analysis - method

Answer 38

• report their methods in incredibly sufficient detail - to the point that their book may be too ladened with statistics, percentages and graphs
• use a lot of public opinion polls from various different years
• analyses how the questions are asked and their contexts in great detail
• they surveyed 926 teachers from across the US to answer their questions