Beliefs - Theories of Religion - 5.1 Flashcards
Functionalism & Religion (Key thinkers)
> Durkheim (Sacred & Profane, Totemism, Collective Conscience & Cognitive Functions)
> Malinowski (Psychological Functions)
> Parsons (Values and meaning)
> Bellah ( Civil Religion as Functional Alternative)
General Functionalist view of Religion
> Religion plays a central part in creating and maintaining value consensus, order and solidarity.
Durkheim (Sacred & Profane)
The sacred are things set apart and forbidden, inspiring feelings of awe, fear and wonder, with taboos and prohibitions.
The profane are ordinary things that have no special significance.
Durkheim (Totemism & Rituals)
> Totems of the aborigines group (e.g. animals & plants with magical qualities) symbolises the clan’s identity.
> Worship of the totem/rituals group creates social solidarity actually worshipping society.
Collective Conscience
Norms & values, making cooperation possible, without these society would disintegrate
Durkheim (Rituals & collective conscience
> Remind people of the power of society, they powerless without it
> Makes us feel part of something greater than us, give strength to face life’s problems.
Durkheim & Cognitive Functions of Religion
> Basics of science & reason in religious texts (e.g. Bible) helps us think conceptually
> Passed through generations, so sharing thoughts & concepts.
Malinowski & 2 Psychological Functions
> Canoe magic helps cope with stress which could undermine social solidarity
>
- At times of crisis
>
- When the outcome is uncertain (e.g. sea fishing)
Malinowski (role of religion in times of crisis e.g. birth & death)
> At death, funerals reinforce solidarity, idea of heaven gives people comfort
> At birth people get baptised, gives idea of protection by god, so gives security.
Malinowski & Uncertain Outcomes
> e.g. Trobriand Islanders took part in Lagoon & Ocean fishing
- Lagoon: Safe & unpredictable = no ritual
- Ocean: Dangerous & uncertain, so used rituals for safe journey, gives sense of control, eases tensions & reinforces solidarity
Briefly outline Parsons two Functions of Religion
- Creates & legitimates norms & values
2. Answers to life’s big questions that could undermine commitment to society’s values
Parsons (Religion & Legitimation of Norms & Values)
> By sacralising them - making them sacred/special
> e.g. Protestantism sacralised American values - ‘God Bless America’
> e.g. individualism, meritocracy & discipline, promotes value consensus & social solidarity
Parsons (religion answers life’s big questions)
> e.g. purpose of life, afterlife, why good people suffer
> Evil defended as test rewarded in heaven
> Helps people cope with adversity maintains social solidarity.
Bellah (Civil Religion)
> Creates social solidarity in US, in a way individual religions can’t.
> e.g. loyalty to nation, expressed by symbols & beliefs e.g. oath of allegiance to the flag
> Sacralises US way of life, binds different people together from different backgrounds
> Unlike churches, only for some Americans
Bellah’s (Civil Religion as a Functional Alternative)
> Supernatural belief not needed
> e.g. Nazi Germany with the Church of Nazism
> includes cult practices focused on worshipping German nation/army without god.
Why is Bellah’s idea of Religion as Functional Alternative flawed?
Conflicts with substantive definition of religion, needing a belief in supernatural.
A03 Criticisms of the functionalist view of the role of religion in society
> Postmodernism (Durkheim’s theory outdated in a multi-faith society)
> Hamilton (Religion can be a source of conflict not solidarity)
Postmodernist Criticisms of Durkheim
> No longer applicable, society more diverse & fragmented.
> Religion no longer binds everyone, no longer a shared value system, we now have individual value systems.
Briefly state two general criticisms of Durkheim
> His understanding of totems was flawed
> His theory is only applicable to small-scale societies
How is Durkheim’s study on Totemism flawed?
Totems not manifestations of group or society, as clans shared totems, so weren’t unique & special.
How is Durkheim’s theory only applicable to small-scale societies
Hard to apply to larger societies, where many religions are in conflict.
How does Hamilton criticise Functionalism?
> Ignores how religion can be source of social division & internal conflict
> e.g. Sunni & Shia’s, ignores hate crimes & fundamentalism.
Interpretivism (Key thinker)
> Berger (religion is a social construction)
Berger’s view on Religion
> Religion and science is a social construction
> Religion gives theodicies which are unchallengeable (e.g beliefs about God), people use these as a coping mechanism - maintains social solidarity
> Helps understand lives & universal meaning of world around us.
Marxism (4 Key thinkers)
> Engels (Socialism v Christianity)
Marx (Opium of Masses)
Marx (Ideological Weapon)
Lenin (Spirtual Gin)
General Marxist view on Religion
> Justifies exploitation & inequality, aiding the ruling class
In a classless society there is no need for religion and it will disappear.
Engels (Socialism vs Christianity)
> Both target the poor & offer a better life (in the afterlife)
> But Christianity offers salvation in after life socialism (communism where everyone is equal) offers it now.
Marx view on Religion as an Opium of the Masses
> Dulls pain of exploitation, form of consolation - afterlife, cushions pain of oppression.
> Temporary and achieved with rituals in the same way that temporary comfort is achieved by taking opium.
False class consciousness
Distorted view of reality, stops poor trying to change position.
Marx (Religion is a ideological weapon through promise of an afterlife)
> Religion promises escape from suffering, with promises of salvation in afterlife.
> So the poor are more likely to put up with exploitation, this creates false class consciousness
How does Marx believe religion is a ideological weapon through the idea of supernatural intervention?
> Gives false reality if you pray hard enough, God may change your situation, maintains bourgeois (ruling class) dominance.
How does Marx believe Religion is an ideological weapon through justification of unequal social hierarchy?
> Rulers have been chosen by God this is part of God’s plan, so shouldn’t be questioned, as power has been divinely obtained.
> Makes disobedience sinful & challenge to God’s authority.
What is Lenin’s idea of religion as a spiritual gin?
> Bourgeoisie use religion as spiritual gin to confuse them
> And stop working class overthrowing them, keeping them in a fog to hide reality.
A03 Marxism Key Sociologists
> Hill & Turner (Impact)
> Neo-Marxism (Hope)
How do Hill & Turner criticise Marxists
Ruling class ideology doesn’t always control population, in pre-industrial society, Christianity had little impact on peasantry.
How do Neo-Marxists criticise Marxists
Gramsci, Maduro see certain forms of religion as assisting, not hindering the development of class consciousness e.g. Liberation Theology
General Criticisms of Marxism
> Religion still existed in Soviet Union under communism
> Islam focuses on Zakat, actually helps poor - donating a proportion of your income to support the poor.
General feminist view on Religion
Patriarchal institutions & ideologies perpetuates inequality, legitimates women’s subordination.
Examples of Patriarchy in Religion
> Religious Figures > Religious Laws & Customs > Reinforcing Women’s Role > Portrayal of Women in Sacred Texts > Places of Worship
Religious Figures - Evidence of Patriarchy in Religion
- In monotheistic religions all gods & prophets, imams, priests are male.
- Holy books focus mainly on male activities, written for men by men.
Portrayal of Women in Sacred Texts - Evidence of Patriarchy in Religion
- Eve portrayed negatively persuading Adam to eat forbidden fruit.
- Virgin Mary & Magdalene, portrayed as virgin & whore.
Places of Worship - Evidence of Patriarchy in Religion
- Women segregated from men e.g. in mosques.
- In Islam women can’t read Quran whilst menstruating, Jewesses can’t read from torah at all.
Religious Laws & Customs - Evidence of Patriarchy in Religion
- Men can have 4 wives in Islam
- In Christanity women seen as men’s property
- In Iran women flogged for dress-code violations or stoned for adultery.
Reinforcing Women’s Role - Evidence of Patriarchy in Religion
Christianity legitimates women’s domestic & reproductive role e.g. catholic church bans abortion & contraception.
Negative Feminist Views on Religion
> De Beauvoir (False class consciousness)
El Saadawi (Arab Countries)
Armstrong (Decline of Goddesses)
Daly (Women & Christanity)
De Beauvoir - False class consciousness
> Tricks women to believe they’re equal in eyes of god & will be rewarded for suffering, gives false class consciousness
> Socialised into worshiping male god & unconsciously see men as superior.
El Saadawi - Arab Countries
> Women oppressed in Arab states through misinterpretations by men of Quran
> Used to exploit women e.g. female genital mutilation (FGM) with no justification through the Qur’an.
> However some aspects of Islam are liberating e.g. women keep surname when getting married.
Positive Feminist Views on Religion
> Woodhead (Hijab & Male Gaze)
Gilrat Ray (Hijab)
Brusco (Religion & Respect)
Woodhead (Hijab & Male Gaze)
> Seen as symbol of oppression by men
> But actually resistance to oppression, due to protection from male gaze
Gilrat Ray (Hijab)
Hijab allows women to have parental approval to go into employment, without being condemned as immodest.
Brusco (Religion & Respect)
> Use religion to get respect for role at home
> Strong belief among pentecostals/evangelicals, men must respect women & refrain from macho behaviour.
Changing role of women in religion
> Church of England now ⅕ of priests are female
> Reform Judaism & Sikhism allow female priests.
Stark and Bainbridge- Female preference for sects and cults & 3 Compensators for Deprivation
> Organismic Deprivation: Women likely worse health - sects and cults give healing
> Ethical Deprivation: Women are morally conservative & see world in moral decline - they share the views of sects and cults
> Social Deprivation: Attract poor - women more likely to be in poverty compared to men
Daly (Women & Christianity)
> Equality will not be achieved as God’s associated with masculinty & christanity is patriarchal myth
> Rooted in male sado-ritual’ e.g. Jesus’ torture on the cross. Symbols embodies hatred for females e.g Eve .
Armstrong (Decline of Goddess)
> Before monotheistic religion there were polytheistic religions that included goddesses. women were seen as close to nature due to their reproductive role
> Patriarchy led to monotheism overriding polytheism and the death of the goddesses
Criticisms of Armstrong
> Some religions e.g. Hindusim still have goddesses
> Some NRMs are female centred e.g. Wicca
Witchcraft & Feminism (Key thinkers)
> Anderson & Gordon (Witch Hunting)
> Turner (Midwifery)
Anderson & Gordon (Witch Hunting)
> Witch hunting tried to control, female sexuality
> Seen as witches & punished
Turner (Midwifery)
> Church scapegoated women doing midwifery & herbal medicine , associating them with satanic temptation
> So men can win control over female clients & female bodies
