Basic Principles of Cooking & Food Science Flashcards
Cooking
When we add enough heat to foods, the molecules may move so fast that the structure of the food changes. Example: 1. Sucrose, regular sugar, may break apart and form new molecules that has a brown smell and the taste of caramel 2. Protein molecules may break apart and reform and reform with a different structure.
Caramelization
The browning of sugar by heat. (ex: browning of sautéed vegetable, browning of baked goods, and the maillard reaction (when meat browns) *Carbohydrate Reaction
Gelatinization
The process by which starch granules absorb water and swell in size. *Carbohydrate Reaction
Dextrinization
Dextrinization When starches are heated dry (that is with no water, but with or without fat), some of the long starch chains are broken down into simpler compounds called dextrins, which give the starch a golden or brown color. Since dextrins have less thickening ability that starches, a brown rue has less thickening power than a white rue
Fiber
A group of indigestible carbohydrates found in grains, fruit and vegetables.
Denature
To change the structure of protein molecules by means of heat or chemicals.
Coagulation
The process by which proteins become firm, usually when heated.
Maillard Reaction
A complex chemical reaction that occurs when heated proteins react with carbohydrate molecules, resulting in browning and flavor changes.
Connective Tissues
Certain proteins in meat, poultry, and fish that contribute to toughness; some are broken down by heat and some are not.
Smoke Point
The temperature at which fat begins to deteriorate rapidly and smoke when heated.
Evaporation
The process by which water turns from a liquid to a gas at any temperature.
Emulsion
Uniform mixture of two substances that are normally unmixable. -A familiar example of an emulsion in the kitchen is mayonnaise, which is a mixture of oil and vinegar.
Temporary Emulsion
When two liquids always separate after being shaken or beaten together (a simple oil and vinegar dressing is an example). In a standard vinaigrette, the vinegar is broken into tiny droplets. These droplets are mixed evenly, or suspended, throughout the oil. -The harder a mixture is beaten or shaken the longer it takes for it to separate. -Some ingredients act as stabilizers, which helps mixture to remain emulsified for longer (ex:mustard in a vinaigrette).
Conduction
Conduction Can occur in two ways: 1. When the heat moves directly from one object to something touching it- for example, from the top of the range to a soup pot placed on it, from the pot to the broth inside, and from the broth to the solid food items in it. 2. When heat moves from one part of something to an adjacent part of the same item- for example, from the exterior of a roast to the interior, or from a sauté pan to it’s handle.
Convection
Occurs when heat is spread by the movement of air, steam, or liquid (including hot fat). Ther are two kinds:: 1. Natural- Hot liquids and gases rise, while cooler ones sink. Thus, in any oven, kettle of liquid, or deep-fat fryer a constant, natural circulation distributes heat. 2. Mechanical- When ovens and steamers have fans that speed the circulation of heat. Thus the heat is transferred more quickly to the food and the food cooks faster.
Radiation
Occurs when energy is transferred by waves from a source to the food.
Infrared
Broiling is the most familiar example of this type of cooking. An electric or ceramic element heated by a gas flame becomes so hot it gives off infrared radiation, which cooks the food. -These ovens are designed to heat food rapidly.
Microwave
Microwave The radiation generated by this oven penetrates partway into the food, where it agitates the molecules of water (heat is the motion of molecules). Thus, as the molecules move faster, the temperature of the food rises and the food is cooked. -Since this type of radiation affects only water molecules, a completely waterless material won’t heat up in this oven. -Since this radiation only penetrates no more than about 2 inches into foods, heat is transferred to the center of large pieces of food by conduction, just as in roasting.
Dry-Heat Methods
Method in which the heat is transferred without moisture- that is, by hot air, hot metal, radiation, or hot fat. Usually divided into two categories: 1. With Fat 2. Without Fat
Moist-Heat Methods
Method in which the heat is transferred to the food product by water or water-based liquids such as stock and sauces, or by steam.
Roast
Cook foods by surrounding them with hot, dry air, usually in an oven. Cooking on a spit in front of an open fire is an example. Usually applies to meat and poultry. Cooking uncovered is essential, as a cover would hold in steam and change from dry-heat to moist-heat, which would be braising or steaming.
Bake
Cook foods by surrounding them with hot, dry air, usually in an oven. Usually applies to breads, pastries, vegetables, and fish (more general of a term than roasting). Cooking uncovered is essential, as a cover would hold in steam and change form dry-heat to moist-heat, which would be braising or steaming.
Barbeque
To cook with dry heat created by the burning of hardwood or by the hot coals of this wood. In other words, this is a roasting technique that requires a wood fire or wood smoke.
Broil
To cook with radiant heat from above. A rapid, high-heat cooking method used mainly for tender meats, poultry, fish, and a few vegetable items.
Grilling
Dry-heat cooking method that uses heat from below. Done on an open grid over a heat source, which may be charcoal, an electric element, or a gas-heated element. Cooking temperature is regulated by moving the items to hotter or cooler places on the grill. Meats should be turned to achieve desired grill marks, just as in broiling.
Griddling
Done on a solid cooking surface called a griddle, with or without small amounts of fat to prevent sticking. The temperature is adjustable and much lower (around 350°F) than a grill. In addition to meats, items like eggs and pancakes are cooked on a griddle. Dry-heat cooking method that uses heat from below
Pan-Broiling
Like griddling, except done on a sauté pan or skillet instead of on a griddle surface. Fat must be poured off as it accumulates, or the process becomes pan-frying. No liquid is added, and the pan isn’t covered, or else the item would steam. Dry-heat cooking method that uses heat from below
Sauté
To cook quickly in a small amount of fat. High heat is required, and the procedure is most often done in a broad, flat pan called a sauté pan or sauteuse.
Pan-Fry
To cook in a moderate amount of fat in a pan over moderate heat. Similar to sautéing, except more fat is used, the heat is lower, and the cooking time is longer. This method is used for larger pieces of food, such as chops and chicken pieces, and the items aren’t tossed by flipping the pan, as they often are in sautéing.
Deep-Fry
Cook a food submerged in hot fat. The equipment most often used for this cooking method is the deep-fryer, which is equip with a thermostat to control the temperature of the fat, and with baskets to lower food into the fat and to remove and drain them when fried. Many foods given a coating of breading or batter before being deep-fried.
Boil
To cook in a liquid that is bubbling rapidly and greatly agitated. Water boils at 212°F at sea level. No matter how high the burner is turned, the temperature of the liquid will go no higher.
Simmer
To cook in a liquid that is bubbling gently at a temperature of about 185°-200°F.
Poach
To cook in a liquid, usually a small amount, that is hot but not actually bubbling. Temperature is 160°-185°F.
Steam
To cook foods by exposing them directly to steam. In quantity cooking, this is usually done in special steam cookers. Can also be done on a rack above boiling water.
Braise
To cook covered in a small amount of liquid, usually after preliminary browning. In almost all cases the liquid is served with the product as a sauce. Sometimes referred to as a Combination Cooking Method because the product is first browned, using dry heat, before it is cooked with a liquid. Nevertheless, in most cases, moist heat is responsible for most of the cooking process, and the browning may be thought of as a preliminary technique. The purpose of browning is not so much to cook the item as to develop color and flavor.
Stewing
Some references describe braising and stewing as two different cooking methods. The term braising is used for larger cuts of meat and stewing is used for smaller items. In this book, however, we use the term braising for both methods because the basic procedure in both cases is the same- first browning with dry heat, then cooking with moist heat. Note that the term stewing is also used for simmering in a small amount of liquid without preliminary browning.
Microwave Cooking
- Small items won’t brown in a standard microwave 2. Watch timing carefully, overcooking most common error. 3. Large items should be turned once or twice for even cooking. 4. An ON/OFF cycle is used for large items to allow time for heat to be conducted to the interior. 5. Use defrost to thaw frozen foods (as this low power setting allows food to be thawed more evenly) with less danger of partially cooking it. 6. Sliced, cooked meats and other items that are likely to dry out in the microwave should be protected by wrapping them loosely in plastic, or wax paper, and/or by covering them in sauce or gravy. 7. Because microwaves act only on water molecules, foods with high water content (vegetables) heat faster than denser/drier foods (cooked meats). 8. Foods at the edge of a plate heat faster than foods in the center because they are more directly exposed to the oven’s rays. Therefore: -Depress the center of casseroles so the food is not as thick there as at the edges. This will help it heat more evenly. -When reheating several items at once on a plate, put the moist quick-heating items (vegetables) in the center and the denser, slower-heating items at the edges. 9. Because microwaves don’t penetrate metal, aluminum foil and other metals, shield foods from the radiant energy. With older machines, general rule not to put any metal in the microwave as the radiation could bounce off the metal and damage the magnetron (the oven’s generator). With newer machine, can heat food in foil pans and shield parts of food by covering it with foil (just be sure not to place to pieces close to one another because sparks may be generated, causing a fire). 10. Because microwaves cook so rapidly, it won’t break down the connective tissue of less tender meats.
Sous Vide
French for “Under Vacuum”, the term is applied to cooking foods that have been vacuum-sealed in plastic bags. The preparation technique is a two step process: 1. Vacuum-pack the food item, plus any seasonings or marinades, in an appropriate plastic bag. 2. Cook the food item, while in the bag, at a constant low temperature, usually in a special water bath.
Sous Vide Application: Tender Meats and Poultry
-Usually cooked in a water bath heated to the exact doneness temperature desired. -Cooking temperatures usually range from 140°-149°F, although higher or lower temperatures are also used, and cooking times may range from 20 to 60 minutes, or sometimes longer. *If cooking temperatures are within the Food Danger Zone, cooking time might be counted as part of the 4-Hour Rule. For this reason, tender meats and poultry are almost always finished and served immediately after cooking and not chilled and stored for later.
Sous Vide Application: Tough meats
-Tough meats can be cooked to tenderness while retaining more moisture than if they were braised or simmered. -Cooking temperature range from 149°-158°F. These temperatures are much lower than normal braising temperatures, but they are higher enough to break down connective tissue. - At the higher end of this range, meats become falling-apart tender, while at the lower end they retain more of their shape and have a firmer texture while still being tender and juicy. -Because it takes time to break down connective tissue, often 12-48 hours, tough meats are often cooked to doneness, then immediately chilled and refrigerated for later use. *Because of such long cooking times, avoid temperatures below 149°F. Higher temperatures provide more safety from bacterial growth.
Sous Vide Application: Fish and Seafood
-Fish are naturally tender and have even more delicate connective tissue than tender meats. -Cooking temperatures are similar to those for tender meats, but often with even lower cooking temperatures and/or shorter cooking times. -Typical cooking temperatures range from 122°-140°F, or sometimes higher, with cooking times as short as 10-15 minutes. -Use only the freshest, cleanest fish, and finish and serve it immediately after cooking. -Shellfish is toughened by the higher heat of traditional cooking methods, so sous vide cooking to be a benefit, with cooking temperatures generally around 140°F
Sous Vide Application: Vegetables
-Vegetables can benefit from sous vide techniques, especially those that discolor when exposed to air, such as artichokes. -Vegetables are usually cooked at 185°F.
Safety Factors of Sous Vide Cooking
- Know the rules for sous vide set up by your local health department, and follow them carefully. A HACCP plan is typically required. 2. Use only the freshest, most wholesome foods from reputable purveyors. 3. Chill all foods thoroughly before vacuum-packing. If you sear a food item before packing, chill it after searing and before packing. 4. After packing, cook the food at once, or immediately refrigerate it at 38°F or lower- or, even better, freeze it. 5. After cooking, serve the food immediately, or chill it as quickly as possible in an ice bath or blast chiller. 6. Thaw cooked food in it’s plastic container in the refrigerator.
Molecular Gastronomy
-Manipulation of food ingredients in new ways by the use of technology. Latest effort by creative chefs to find new ways of preparing and presenting food. -“Avante-Garde Cuisine” suggests that the technology is the most important part of this way of cooking and that scientist make artificial food in test tubes.
Molecular Gastronomy Avant-Garde Techniques and Ingredients: Non-traditional Thickeners
-In addition to traditional starches, chefs have new ways to thicken sauces and to change the texture of liquids. -Some of these thickening agents work without heating and are simply blended with the cold liquid. -This allows chefs to create sauces and other liquids with a fresh, uncooked taste.
Molecular Gastronomy Avant-Garde Techniques and Ingredients: Foams, Froths, and Bubbles
-For many years chefs have made foamy sauces by whipping or blending a sauce just before plating. These foams collapse quickly, however. -Avant-garde chefs stabilize foams with gelatin, lecithin, and other ingredients. -A well-made foam adds an additional flavor dimension to the plate without adding bulk
Molecular Gastronomy Avant-Garde Techniques and Ingredients: Gels
-Turning a liquid, such as vegetable juice, into a solid not only gives it a different texture but it also enables the food to be cut into many shapes, allowing the chef to prepare different visual presentations. -Chefs use regular gelatin as well as other jelling agents, such as agar agar, which is derived from seaweed.
Molecular Gastronomy Avant-Garde Techniques and Ingredients: Drying and Powdering
-Drying a food intensifies it’s flavor/texture. -If the dehydrated food is powdered, becomes another flavor and texture experience. -Eating a cauliflower floret that was deep-fried, then dehydrated until crisp is a much different experience than eating steamed, buttered cauliflower.
Molecular Gastronomy Avant-Garde Techniques and Ingredients: Spherification
-This technique creates spheres of liquid contained inside a thin gel wall. -In a standard method, the liquid is mixed with a hydrocolloid called sodium alginate; in a separate container is a bath containing calcium. -When the liquid is dropped into the calcium bath, the alginate and calcium bath react to form a thin wall of gel surrounding a liquid center. - The chef can make tiny spheres by using an eye dropper or larger ones by freezing the liquid in a mold before dropping it into the calcium bath.
Molecular Gastronomy Avant-Garde Techniques and Ingredients: Reverse-Spherification
-This technique creates spheres of liquid contained inside a thin gel wall. -The liquid is mixed with calcium. In a separate container is a bath containing a hydrocolloid called sodium alginate. -When the liquid is dropped into the sodium alginate bath, the calcium and alginate bath react to form a thin wall of gel surrounding a liquid center. - The chef can make tiny spheres by using an eye dropper or larger ones by freezing the liquid in a mold before dropping it into the sodium alginate bath.
Flavor Profile
The harmony of ingredient flavors and aromas the cook creates by combining ingredients skillfully.
What are the four senses that are most important to consider when composing a new dish?
Consider how we perceive these characteristics of a dish: 1. (Sight) Appearance- color and color contrast, shape, shine, arrangement on the plate 2. (Smell) Aroma 3. Taste 4. (Touch) Mouthfeel- texture, moistness or dryness, softness or crispness
What basic sensations can a tongue perceive?
- Salty 2. Sweet 3. Bitter 4. Sour 5. Umami “Meatiness”
What determine’s a food’s flavor?
-What we think of as flavor is a combination of taste and aroma. -When the sense of smell is lacking, such as when you have a cold, food seems to have little flavor.
Umami (MSG)
-Often translated as “Meatiness”. -Sense receptors on the tongue react to certain amino acids, and since amino acids are components of proteins, this taste is strong in foods that are high in protein. -Beef, Lamb, certain Cheeses, and Soy Sauce are especially high in Umami. The food additive Monosodium Glutamate (MSG) produces strong Umami. (has only recently been recognized by North American and European food authorities– though long recognized in Asian cultures).
Classic Flavor Combinations
- (Hungary) Sour cream, Paprika, Caraway 2. (Scandinavia) Sour Cream or Mustard, Dill 3. (Germany) Caraway, Onion, Vinegar 4. (Provence, France) Garlic, Tomato, Parsley 5. (Normandy, France) Apples, Apple Cider or Apple Brandy, Cream 6. (Burgundy, France) Shallot, Garlic, Parsley 7. (Italy) Tomato, Basil, Olive Oil 8. (Italy) Olive Oil, Garlic, Anchovy 9. (Greece) Lemon, Oregano 10. (Eastern and Southern Mediterranean, Middle Eastern) Cinnamon, Nuts, Honey 11. (India) Ginger, Onion, Garlic 12. (Thailand) Fish Sauce/Nam Pla, Lemongrass, Chiles 13. (Japan) Ginger, Soy Sauce 14. (Japan) Soy Sauce, Sake or Mirin, Dried Bonito 15. (China) Ginger, Garlic, Scallion 16. (Spain) Paprika, Cured Ham
Primary Flavor
Flavors of the main ingredients that predominate the dish. The first tastes you encounter are the main ingredients.
Supporting Flavor
Support and enhance the Primary Flavors of the main ingredients.
