Basic Elements of Music Theory Flashcards
Section I of USAD Music Resource Guide terms and definitions
Music
Sound organized in time
Sound
A wave of energy consisting of both amplitude and frequency
440 Hz
Sounds like an A above middle C
Between which cycles per second will the human ear hear a single, sustained pitch?
20 and 20,000 cycles per second
Percussion instruments provide most of these sounds in music
Non-pitched sounds
Ethnomusicologist
The modern term for scholars who study the music of other cultures, or who study multiple cultures comparatively
Curt Sachs and Erich von Hornbostel
Created the four Sachs/Hornbostel classifications for instruments
Chordophones
Have one or more strings, which are plucked, bowed, or struck (violins, harps, guitars, violas, cellos, double bass, lute, etc.)
Aerophones
Brass and wind instruments that feature a vibrating column of air (horns and lutes)
Membranophones
Have a skin or other membrane stretched across some frame; the membrane vibrates when struck (timpani, bass drum, snare, tambourines, etc.)
Idiophones
The body of the instrument itself vibrates when struck (marimba, xylophone, vibraphone, tubular bells, gongs, cymbals, triangle, wood block, etc.)
Electrophones
A later-added fifth category to the Sachs/Hornbostel classifications, which create sound waves using an oscillator and are dependent upon electricity (synthesizers, etc.)
Centuries before Sachs and Hornbostel, Western orchestral instruments were grouped into
Families
Strings
Usually bowed or plucked; correlate closely to chordophones
Brass
Aerophones made of metal, and are sounded by the performer’s buzzing lips (trumpet, trombone, French horn, tuba, flugelhorn, baritone, bugle, etc.)
Woodwinds
Aerophones in which the column of air is moved by breath alone or by one or two vibrating reeds made from wood (flutes, recorders, piccolos, oboes, clarinets, bassoons, saxophones, etc.)
Percussion
Includes membranophones and idiophones, plus some chordophones that are struck rather than bowed or plucked, such as the piano
Theremin
One of the best-known early electronic instruments in which the performer regulates frequency with one hand and amplitude with the other
Musique concrete
Electronically generated sounds and sound produced by live instruments were recorded on tape, where they could be edited, manipulated, and mechanically recombined to form collages of sound that were “performed” via loudspeaker
Where were the first practitioners of musique concreté based?
Paris
What are the basic techniques of tape music?
Looping and splicing
Which four cities had famous postwar centers for electronic music?
Rome, Paris, Cologne and New York City
Pitch
The highness or lowness of a sound, which consists of a steadily oscillating sound wave
What happens when halve the length of a string on a guitar and play it?
The string vibrates twice as fast and plays a pitch that is twice as high
Octave
The interval between one pitch and the next higher or lower value of the same pitch
Where is middle C located on a keyboard?
To the left of the group of two black keys closest to the middle of the keyboard
Half step
The distance between any two adjacent pitches; also known as a semitone
Whole step
The distance between every other adjacent pitch
Scale
A sequence of pitches in ascending or descending order
Natural keys
The white keys of a keyboard, which span through the first seven alphabetical letters
Which French word does clef come from?
Key
Treble clef
Indicates that the second line from the bottom of the staff is the pitch “G” (also known as the “G-clef” for this reason)
Bass clef
Indicates that the fourth line from the bottom of the staff should be read as the pitch “F” (also known as the “F-clef” for this reason)
C-clef
It is centered on a line that is read as middle C (also known as alto clef)
Tenor clef
When the C-clef is centered on the fourth line from the bottom of the staff
Grand staff
Two bracketed staves used in piano music in which the left hand plays the bass clef on the lower staff and the right hand plays the treble clef on the upper staff
Fundamental
The lowest sound heard when a pitch is played; the loudest and strongest
Partials
The faint presence of higher pitches that “color” the fundamental when the pitch is played
When did equal temperament become the dominant tuning system?
After 1750
Chromatic scale
The twelve different pitches in ascending order by half steps
Enharmonic pitches
Two different labels for the same pitch (e.g. Eb and D#)
Double-sharp
Raised by two half steps
Double-flat
Lowered by two half steps
Diatonic scale
A set of seven pitches as the basis for a piece of music when arranged in ascending order
Tonic pitch
Also known as the “resting tone” or “Do,” this is the first pitch in a diatonic scale and anchor
Dominant pitch
The fifth scale degree, which acts as a second gravitational center that sets melodies in motion by pulling them away from the tonic
Leading tone
The seventh scale degree; it would sound very unstable to stop at this pitch when playing a scale
Interval
The distance between any two pitches; any can be performed so that it is harmonic or melodic
What are some intervals that exceed an octave?
The major ninth, the minor ninth, the major tenth, and the minor tenth
What is the major scale’s sequence of intervals?
whole-whole-half-whole-whole-whole-half (U-U-V-U-U-U-V)
What do all minor scales have?
A lowered third scale degree (interval from the tonic to the third pitch is a minor third)
Natural minor scale
The half steps are located between pitches 2-3 and 5-6. Additionally, the major scale’s upward pull from 7 to 8 is not present.
Harmonic minor mode
Created by raising the seventh scale degree one half step to create that pull from 7 to 8
Melodic minor mode
Both the sixth and seventh scale degree are raised a half step as the scale ascends; they are restored to their “natural minor” pitches as the scale descends
Relative major and minor scales
A major and minor scale that uses the same seven pitches (just different tonics)
Parallel scales
Major and minor scales that begin and end on the same tonic pitch
Blues scale
Scale degrees 3 and 7 can be either lowered, normal, or somewhere in between using a pitch “between the keys” of the piano
Melody
A series of successive pitches perceived by the ear to form a coherent whole
Conjunt
The melody moves smoothly, in a stepwise motion, in mostly half steps and whole steps
Disjunct
The melody contains proportionally more leaps (intervals larger than a major second)
What is a viola’s range?
C3 to E6
What is a cello’s range?
C2 to A5
Soprano
Higher-register female singer
Alto
Lower-register female singer
Tenor
Higher-register male singer
Bass
Lower-register male singer
Rhythm
The way music is organized in time
Beat
The steady pulse that underlies most music
Tempo
The speed of the beat
Lento (Grave)
Very slow (40 bpm)
Adagio
Slow (72 bpm)
Andante
“At a walking tempo” (84 bpm)
Moderato
Moderate (108 bpm)
Allegro
Fast; “cheerful” (120 bpm)
Presto
Very fast (200 bpm)
Ritardando
Tempo slows down
Accelerando
Tempo speeds up
Poco a poco
Gradually
Subito
Suddenly
Rubato
Tempo speeds up and slows down for expressive effect
Unmetered
No discernable beat and no steady tempo
Downbeat
Also known as the strong beat, it is the first beat of any measure
Meter
Describes the pattern of emphasis superimposed on groups of beats
Duple meter
Two-beat pattern with a STONG-weak-STRONG-weak pulsation
Triple meter
Three-beat pattern with a STRONG-weak-weak-STRONG-weak-weak pulsation
Quadruple meter
Four-beat pattern with 1 being the strongest beat, 3 being the second strongest, and 2 and 4 being weak beats (often difficult to distinguish from duple)
Irregular (or asymmetrical) meter
Groupings that cannot be divided into steady pulsations of two, three, or four beats (most common are five-beat or seven-beat measures)
Anacrusis
Also known as a “pick-up,” it is when the first word of a song falls before the downbeat
Beams
These horizontal connecting lines across multiple flagged notes are sometimes easier for a musician to read quickly
Dot
Adds half the original value to a note
Tie
A curved line that connects notes of the same pitch so that the note lasts as long as their combined values
Rests
Symbols for silence
Time signature
The lower number indicates a durational note value and the upper number indicates how many of those durational values (or their equivalents) will occur in one measure
Common time
A large capital C indicates this time signature is equivalent to 4/4 time
Cut-time
A vertical slash through the C indicates this time signature is 2/2A
“Alla breve”
The original name of cut-time
Simple subdivision
Each beat is divided in half (1 & 2 & 3 & 4 &)
Compound subdivision
Each beat is subdivided into three equal parts (ONE-&-a TWO-&-a THREE-&-a)
Mixed meter
Measures that have different meters occur in rapid succession
Irregular meter
Measures that have different meters alternate in an irregular pattern (may also mean there is a steady beat but it is grouped unpredictably or inconsistently)
Accent
Indicates that the note is to receive a greater stress than the notes around it; symbolized by the > symbol
Polymeter
When two or more meters are operating simultaneously
How is swing music notated and played
Notated as if rhythms are in 4/4 time, but played as if they are in 12/8
Syncopation
When accented or emphasized notes fall on weak beats or in between beats
Polyrhythm
Also called cross-rhythm, this occurs when two conflicting rhythmic patterns are present simultaneously
What are the most common polyrhythms?
Two against three & three against four
Harmony
Occurs whenever two or more tones are sounding simultaneously
Common-practice tonality
The system of organizing pitch and harmony that we find intuitive today in Western cultures
When and where did common-practice tonality begin?
In Europe during the Middle Ages; codified by about 1750
Chord
Three or more pitches sounding simultaneously
Triad
A three-note chord consisting of two intervals of a third
Major triad (M)
Has a major third on the bottom and a minor third above
Minor triad (m)
Has a minor third on the bottom and a major third above
Diminished triad (d)
Built on the seventh scale degree with a minor third between each interval; highly unstable
Augmented triad (A)
A major third between each interval
Root
The lowest note of a triad
Third
The middle note of a triad
Fifth
The highest note of a triad
Root position
The root is on the bottom of a chord
First inversion
The third of a triad is on the bottom; indicated by a 6 following the chord symbol
Second inversion
The fifth of a triad is on the bottom; indicated by a 6/4 following the chord symbol
Key
The set of seven notes, or scale, that has been selected for use in that piece
Which pitch lends its name to the key?
Tonic
Which scale degree(s) determine whether a key is major or minor?
3, 6, and 7
Chromatic pitches
Decorative or expressive “extra” pitches that occur outside of a key’s seven pitches
Key signature
A set of sharps or flats at the beginning of every staff that indicates the key of the music
Which two scales need only an F#?
G major (7th note) and E minor (2nd note)
How many major and minor scales are there each?
15
Perfect fifth
An interval of seven half steps subsumed within five letter names
Circle of fifths
Moving clockwise, each successive scale is a perfect fifth higher and a sharp is added; counterclockwise, each scale is a perfect fifth lower and a flat is added
Which scale is at the top of the major circle of fifths?
C major scale
Which scale is at the top of the minor circle of fifths?
A minor scale
Harmonic progression
A series of chords or intervals that moves from tension (dissonance) toward resolution (consonance)
Dissonance
Unstable or tense
Consonance
A suitable point of rest or resolution, especially if they stress the lower partials on the overtone series (i.e. an octave with a fifth added above the bass or a major triad with the root doubled)
Tritone
An interval made up of two notes that are three whole steps apart
Diatonic
“Within the key” (no accidentals are needed other than those already indicated in the key signature)
Tonic triad/chord (I)
A diatonic triad built on the tonic pitch; it is the most stable chord in a key
On which scale degrees do major diatonic triads occur naturally in a major key?
4 and 5
On which scale degrees do minor diatonic triads occur on a major key?
2, 3, and 6
Dominant chord (V)
It contains the leading tone and the dominant pitch, both of which want to resolve to the tonic pitch
Predominant harmonies
Harmonies that “pull” to the dominant
Supertonic/subdominant (IV)
Triads built on the 2nd and 4th scale degrees
Chord progression
A chain of triads, each pulling to the next
What is the most common chord progression?
predominant-dominant-tonic
Bass line
The lowest “voice” in a series of chords (usually play the root of the harmony)
What is the strongest kind of bass line?
One that descends a fifth (usually from scale degree 5 to 1)
Cadences
Pausing points
Dominant seventh chord
Adds a fourth pitch to a dominant triad that is an interval of a minor seventh from the root of the chord (scale degrees 5-7-2 and 4)
Between which pitches does a dominant seventh chord contain a tritone?
7 and 4
What are the most common embellishing notes?
A sixth, seventh, and ninth above the root of the chord
A brief passage of chromaticism is heard in “Take Me Out to the Ball Game” during the phrase
“Buy me some peanuts…”
Modal mixture
One or two pitches of the basic triad are altered (usually between a major key and its parallel minor key
Modulate
To change keys
When did Romantic composers seek new ways to portray emotion and individuality in music?
The nineteenth century
Arnold Schoenberg
He concluded in 1910 that music had become so chromatic that the only possible next step forward was to “free” dissonance from the need to resolve to the tonic
“Emancipation of dissonance”
Term used by Schoenberg to urge composers to abandon the conventions of common-practice tonality
Atonal music
Music that lacks a fixed tonal center
Twelve-tone method
Instead of a scale, each piece had a primary “tone row” consisting of all twelve chromatic pitches
By what year did Schoenberg develop the twelve-tone method?
1925
Anton Webern and Alban Berg
Schoenberg’s proteges who used his methods extensively in the 1930s
When did twelve-tone techniques become popular?
After World War II
Luigi Russolo
Composer who generated and categorized “noises”
Non-functional harmonies
Familiar chords from common-practice tradition that are never resolved
What are some examples of unusual scales?
Pentatonic, whole-tone, and octatonic
Polytonality
Music in two different keys that are performed simultaneously
Monophony
A single, unaccompanied melodic line
Homophony
A harmonic accompaniment differs from the melody, but plays a clearly subordinate role
Polyphony
Two or more separate melodies unfold simultaneously (either counterpoint or imitative)
Counterpoint
Simultaneous melodies are usually in different registers, but they follow the same beat and fit into the same harmonic progression
Imitative polyphony
Features only one melody, but is played by multiple people at staggered intervals (i.e. “Are You Sleeping?”)
Heterophony
Two performers produce versions of the same melody simultaneously, but they are not playing in precise unison (popular in early jazz)
Arranging
The art of taking an existing piece of music and giving instructions as to what each individuals performer should play
Which partials are strongest on a clarinet?
The first and third partials
Mute
Timbre of an instrument can be modified by using this, which not only quiets the volume but alters the tone color
What is the full name of the modern piano?
Pianoforte
Crescendo
A gradual increase in dynamics
Decrescendo (diminuendo)
A gradual decrease in dynamics
Staccato
Indicates performer should shorten the duration of a note rather than letting it sound for its full value
Legato
Multiple pitches are played in a smooth, connected but not overlapping manner
PIzzicato
When the finger is used to pluck a string
Ornamentation
Localized embellishments, which are often not written down and involve improvisation
Trill
A rapid oscillation between two adjacent notes
Motive (motif)
The smallest identifiable recurring musical idea
Ostinato
A melodic or rhythmic motive that is repeated many, many times in immediate succession (from the Italian word for “obstinate”)
Phrase
A cohesive musical thought (often come in related pairs)
Antecedent phrase
The first member of a phrase’s pair
Consequent phrase
The second member of phrase’s pair that begins with similar musical material (parallel structure)
Half cadence
Rests on the dominant harmony
Full cadence (authentic)
Uses the progression V-I
Theme
A set of phrases that make a complete melody
What does coda mean in Italian?
Tail
Sequence
When a musical idea (usually two measures or less) is repeated at a different pitch level
Strophic form
A song that is made up of a single, multi-phrased melody, repeated four times with different words each time (AAAA)
How is a variation diagrammed?
By adding a “prime” mark to the same capital letter used for the theme (i.e. A A’ A’’, etc.)
Twelve-bar blues
Three phrases of four measures (the first line lays out the tonic harmony, the second attempts to escape tonic, and the final begins with a stronger attempt but sinks back to the starting point)
Which styles were improvisation popular in?
soul, gospel, jazz, and other styles common before 1950
Ternary form
Two sections of very similar music frame a contrasting middle section and each section normally ends with an authentic cadence; used in middle movements of classical works (ABA)
Rondo form
Built from distinct sections, one of which keeps returning (ABACA)
32-bar form
Two eight-measure A section that are contrasted with a second eight-measure B idea, with a return to the A melody (AABA; sometimes called “song form”)
Verse-chorus form
Multiple verses, each with different words, and a repetitive chorus, or refrain (a-B-a-B; only the melody repeats during verses)
Fugue
A single theme is head alone at the beginning until successive lines imitating the subject create a thick polyphonic texture
Fugue subject
A single theme that is developed using the technique of imitative counterpoint
Countersubject
A companion theme to a fugue subject
Sonata form
A two-section structure consisting of a exposition, development, and recapitulation and has been used for the first movements of many Western classical compositions, beginning around 1730
Exposition
Presents the first idea in the tonic key, modulates to a different key (usually the dominant), and presents the second idea in the new key
Development
Harmonically unstable and exploratory portion, which ends in a half cadence on the dominant chord of the original key
Recapitualation
Idea #1 returns just as it was presented in the exposition, the transition and Idea #2 follow (without the modulation), then a concluding section in the original key brings the entire movement to a close
During which time period is the sonata cycle usually seen?
From 1730 to 1950
Three-movement sonata cycle
dramatic sonata form»_space; slower ABA form»_space; lively sonata or rondo form
What do most compositions titled “String Quartet” or “Symphony” from 1730 to 1950 use?
A four-movement sonata cycle form
Four-movement sonata cycle
A dance-like “minuet and trio” movement normally appears before the last movement of a regular three-movement sonata cycle
Performance practice
A subfield that exists to address the question “How did the music really sound?”
Christopher Small
Critic who proposes we should also study the human activity he calls “Musicking”
